-Succeeding in today’s world of work
demands that you read, listen, speak, and write effectively.
A.
Heightened
Global Competition
-Communication is more complicated with people
who have different religions, customs, and lifestyles.
B.
Flattened
Management Hierarchies
-Flattening means that fewer layers of
managers separate decision makers from line workers.
-Flatter organizations demand that every
employee be a skilled communicator.
C.
Expanded
Team-Based Management
-Companies are also turning to the concept
of team-based operations.
-When companies form cross-functional
teams, individuals must work together and share information.
D.
Innovative
Communication Technologies
-Just as companies are scrambling to use
the Web most effectively, individual businesspeople are eagerly embracing the
new technologies and revamping the way they communicate.
-E-mail, voice mail, fax,
video-conferencing, and the Web are revolutionizing the way we exchange
information.
E.
New Work
Environments
-Thanks to mobile technologies, millions of
Americans now telecommute.
-Hotelling
describes the practice of an open office with unassigned desks.
-Hot-desking
refers to a desk that’s still warm from its previous occupant.
-Combined with new responsibilities of team
problem solving, business communicators can expect to need interpersonal skills
that deal with heightened levels of emotion.
F.
Increasingly
Diverse Workforce
-Communicating in this diverse work
environment requires new attitudes and skills.
-A diverse staff is better able to read
trends and respond to the increasingly diverse customer base in local and world
markets.
G.
Thriving in
the Age of Knowledge
-The vital raw material in our economy is
knowledge.
-Knowledge workers deal with symbols, such
as words, figures, and data.
-Constantly changing technologies and work
procedures mean continual training for employees.
(2)
Examining the Process of Communication
-Communication is the transmission of information and meaning from
one
individual
or group to another.
A.
Sender Has
Idea
-The communication process has five
steps: idea formation, message
encoding, message transmission, message decoding, and feedback.
B.
Sender
Encodes Idea in Message
-Encoding is the process of converting the
idea into words or gestures that will convey meaning.
-A major problem in communicating any
message verbally is that words have different meanings for different
people.
C.
Message
Travels Over Channel
-Channels are the media—computer,
telephone, letter, fax, and so on—that transmit messages.
-Anything that interrupts the transmission
of a message in the communication process is called noise.
D.
Receiver
Decodes Message
-Translating the message from its symbol
form into meaning involves decoding.
E.
Feedback
Travels to Sender
-The verbal and nonverbal responses of the
receiver create feedback. Feedback
helps the sender know that the message was received and understood.
-The best feedback is descriptive rather
than evaluative.
(3)
Overcoming Interpersonal Communication Barriers
-The communication process is
successful only when the receiver understands the
message as intended by the sender.
A.
Obstacles
That Create Misunderstanding
-The most significant barriers for
individuals are bypassing, frames of reference, lack of language skill, and
distractions.
1.
Bypassing
-Bypassing
happens when people miss each other with their meanings.
2.
Frame of
Reference
-Because your frame of reference is totally
different from everyone else’s, you will never see things exactly as others do.
3.
Lack of
Language Skill
-Successful communication requires good
oral and written language skills.
4.
Distractions
-Other barriers include emotional inference
and physical distractions.
B.
Overcoming
the Obstacles
-A good communicator anticipates problems
in encoding, transmitting, and decoding a message. Effective communicators also focus on the receiver’s environment
and frame of reference.
-A large part of successful communication
is listening.
-Effective communicators create an
environment for useful feedback.
(4)
Communicating in Organizations
A.
Internal and
External Functions
-Internal communication includes sharing
ideas and messages with superiors, coworkers, and subordinates.
-Internal communication often consists of e-mail,
memos, and voice messages; external communication generally consists of
letters.
-External communication occurs with
customers, suppliers, government, and the public.
-Organizational communication has three
basic functions: to inform, to
persuade, and/or to promote goodwill.
B.
New Emphasis
on Interactive Communication
-Organizations prefer more interactive,
fast-results communication.
1.
Oral
Communication
-The best way to exchange information is
orally in face-to-face conversations or meetings.
-Oral communication minimizes
miscommunication but provides no written record, sometimes wastes time, and may
be inconvenient.
2.
Written
Communication
-Written communication provides a permanent
record but lacks immediate feedback.
-It also requires careful preparation,
because words committed to hard or soft copy become a public record.
-Written messages demand good writing
skills, which can be developed through training.
C.
Avoiding
Information Overload and Productivity Meltdown
-The large volume of messages and communication
channel choices overwhelms many workers.
-Interruptions average once every ten
minutes.
(5)
Improving the Flow of Information in Organizations
-A free exchange of information
helps organizations respond rapidly to changing
markets, increase efficiency and productivity, build employee
morale, serve the
public, and take full advantage of the ideas of today’s knowledge
workers.
A.
Formal
Channels
-Formal communication channels follow an
organization’s chain of command.
-Official information among workers
typically flows through formal channels in three directions: downward, upward, and horizontally.
1.
Downward Flow
-Job plans, policies, instructions,
feedback, and procedures flow downward from managers to employees.
-The longer the lines of communication, the
greater the chance that a message will be distorted.
-To improve communication, management
speaks directly to team leaders; thus speeding up the entire process.
2.
Upward Flow
-Information flowing upward provides
feedback from non-management employees to management.
-Employees who distrust their employers are
less likely to communicate openly.
-Other obstacles include fear of reprisal
for honest communication, lack of adequate communication skills, and differing
frames of reference.
3.
Horizontal
Flow
-Lateral channels transmit information
horizontally among workers at the same level.
-To improve horizontal communication,
companies are training and rewarding employees.
B.
Informal
Channels
-Informal organizational communication
transmits unofficial news through the grapevine.
-Alert managers find the grapevine an
excellent source of information about employee morale and problems.
-As much as two thirds of an employee’s
information comes from informal channels.
-Employees prefer to receive vital company
information through formal channels.
(6)
Facing Increasing Ethical Challenges
-Ethical practices make good
business sense, because ethical companies endure
less litigation, less resentment, and less
government regulation.
-Ethical behavior means doing the right thing given the circumstances.
-Ethical behavior involves four
principles: honesty, integrity,
fairness, and
concern for others.
A.
Five Common
Ethical Traps
1.
The False
Necessity Trap
-People act from the belief that they’re
doing what they must do, when in fact it’s generally a matter of convenience or
comfort.
2.
The
Doctrine-of-Relative-Filth Trap
-Unethical actions sometimes look good when
compared with the worse behavior of others.
3.
The
Rationalization Trap
-People try to explain away unethical
actions by justifying them with excuses.
4.
The
Self-Deception Trap
-Applicants for jobs who inflate their
grade-point averages or exaggerate past accomplishments to impress prospective
employers.
5.
The
Ends-Justify-the-Means Trap
-Taking unethical actions to accomplish a
desirable goal is a common trap.
B.
Goals of
Ethical Business Communication
1.
Telling the
Truth
2.
Labeling
Opinions
-Know the difference between facts and
opinions
3.
Being
Objective
-Recognize their own biases and strive to
keep them from distorting a message
-Facts are verifiable; opinions are beliefs
held with conviction.
-Honest reporting means presenting the
whole picture and relating all facts fairly.
4.
Communicating
Clearly
-“Plain English” laws require simple,
understandable language in policies, contracts, warranties, and other
documents.
-They aren’t unethical unless the intent is
to deceive.
5.
Giving Credit
-Plagiarists use the ideas of others
without giving credit. Stealing ideas
or words from others in unethical.
C.
Tools for
Doing the Right Thing
-Acting ethically means doing the right
thing given the situation.
-Each set of circumstances requires
analyzing issues, evaluating choices, and acting responsibly.
-The best
advice in ethical matters is contained in the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have others do
unto you.
Chapter 7: Routine Letters and Goodwill Messages
(1)
Strategies
for Routine Letters
·
Routine
letters to outsiders encourage product feedback, project a favorable company
image, and promote future business.
·
Such letters
go to suppliers, government agencies, other businesses, and, most importantly,
customers.
·
At least
three characteristics distinguish good business letters:
1.
Clear Content
·
Clear letters
feature short sentences and paragraphs, transitional expressions, familiar
words, and active-voice verbs.
2. A Tone of Goodwill
·
Letters
achieve a tone of goodwill by emphasizing a “you” view and reader benefits.
3. Correct Form
·
Appropriate
letter formats send silent but positive messages.
·
Unjustified
margins improve readability.
·
Most business
messages are routine requests or routine responses.
·
Everyday
business messages “frontload” by presenting the main idea or purpose
immediately.
·
Most business
letters are better written “backwards”
·
Start with
the action desired or the main idea.
·
Most simple
requests should open immediately with a statement of purpose
·
The body
explains the purpose for writing, perhaps using graphic devices to highlight
important ideas.
·
Develop each
idea in a separate paragraph with effective transitions to connect them.
Being
Specific and Courteous in the Closing
The closing courteously specifies what the receiver is to do.
·
Before
writing routine letters make yourself analyze your purpose and anticipate the
response.
·
Determining
your purpose
·
Anticipating
the reaction of your audience
·
Visualizing
the audience
·
Collect
information and make a list of the points you wish to cover.
·
Revise for
clarity
·
Proofread for
correctness
·
Check for
punctuation irregularities, typos, misspelled words, or other mechanical
problems
·
Evaluate your
product
(2)
Direct
Request Letters
·
A direct
letter may open with a question or a polite request.
·
Before you
write any letter, consider its costs in terms of your time and workload. Whenever possible, don’t write!
·
Put the main
idea first
·
Questions in
a direct letter should be parallel (balanced grammatically).
·
In the letter
body explain your purpose and provide details.
·
Pose
open-ended questions
·
Spell out the
action to be taken
·
Direct
request letters maintain a courteous tone, spell out what needs to be done, and
focus on reader benefits.
·
Do so in a
fresh and efficient manner
·
The most
effective messages tell a story from the reader’s perspective, not the
writer’s.
·
In the
opening let the reader know immediately that this is a purchase authorization
and not merely an information inquiry.
·
Letters
placing orders specify items or services, quantities, dates, prices, and
payment method.
(4) Making
Straightforward Claims
·
When you as a
customer must write to identify or correct a wrong, the letter is called a claim.
·
Claim letters
open with a clear problem statement, support the claim with specifics, and
close with a statement of goodwill.
·
Written
claims are often taken more seriously, and they also establish a record of what
happened.
·
You should
open a claim letter with a clear statement of the problem or with the action
you want the receiver to take.
·
Providing
details without getting angry improve the effectiveness of a claim letter.
·
In the body
of a claim letter, explain the problem and justify your request.
·
Written
claims submitted promptly are taken more seriously than delayed ones.
(5)
Direct Reply
Letters
·
When you can
respond favorably to requests, use the direct pattern.
·
Letters
responding to requests may open with a subject line to identify the topic
immediately.
·
Usually appearing
one blank line below the salutation
·
In the first
sentence of a direct reply letter, deliver the information the reader wants.
·
In the body
of your reply, supply explanations and additional information.
·
Responding to
customer inquiries provides a good opportunity to promote your business.
·
In mixed-news
messages the good news should precede the bad.
·
Your goal is
to present the negative news clearly without letting it become the focus of the
message.
(6)
Writing
Letters of Recommendation
·
Letters of
recommendation may be written to nominate people for awards and for membership
in organizations.
·
They are
written to evaluate present or former employees.
·
Letters of
recommendation present honest, objective evaluations of individuals and help
match candidates to jobs.
·
The opening
establishes the reason for writing and the relationship of the writer.
·
The body of a
letter of recommendation should describe the candidate’s job performance and
potential in specific terms.
·
In the final
paragraph, offer an overall evaluation.
(7)
Granting
Claims and Making Adjustments
·
Businesses
generally respond favorably to claims because of legal constraints and the
desire to maintain customer goodwill.
·
Wise
organizations value complaints not only as a chance to retain customers but
also as a significant source of feedback.
·
Favorable
responses to customer claims follow the direct pattern; unfavorable responses
follow the indirect pattern.
·
Adjustment
letters seek to right wrongs, regain customer confidence, and promote further
business.
·
Opening
sentences tell the good news quickly.
·
Explain what
caused the problem and the measure taken to avoid future recurrence.
·
Your goal is
to win back the confidence of the customer.
·
Explain what
went wrong without admitting liability or making excuses.
·
Apologize if
it seems natural and appropriate.
·
Focus on
complying with request, explaining reasons, and preventing recurrence.
·
Close with
appreciation, thanks for past business, and expression of desire to be of
service.
(8)
Writing
Winning Goodwill Messages
·
The best
goodwill messages concentrate on the five Ss
*Selfless
*Specific
*Sincere
*Spontaneous
*Short
·
Take the time
to respond to any goodwill message you may receive.
·
Sympathy
notes should refer to the misfortune and offer assistance.
(9)
Writing
International Letters
·
International
letters should conform to the organizational, format, and cultural conventions
of the receiver’s country.
·
Always learn
about local preferences before sending letters abroad.
·
To be safe,
spell out the names of months instead of using figures. Verify sums of money and identify the
currency unit.
·
It’s also
wise to have someone familiar with the local customs read and revise the
message.
Chapter 8:
Routine Memos and E-Mail Messages
(1)
Writing
Routine Memos and E-Mail Messages
·
E-mail is
rapidly becoming the communication medium of choice.
·
Routine memos
and e-mail messages open with the main idea first because their topics are not
sensitive and require little persuasion.
·
Routine memos
inform employees, request data, give responses, confirm decisions, and provide
directions.
·
Good memos
and e-mail messages generally discuss only one topic.
·
The tone of
memos and e-mail messages is expected to be conversational because the
communicators are usually familiar with one another. Yet, the tone should be professional.
·
They contain
only what’s necessary to convey meaning and be courteous…eliminate wordiness.
·
Graphic
highlighting includes numbered and bulleted lists and headings.
Writing
Process
·
Good memos
require careful preparation.
·
A systematic
plan helps you write faster and more effectively.
·
Analyzing the
purpose of a message helps determine whether a permanent record is required.
·
The three
phases of the writing process
1.
Prewriting
2.
Writing
3.
Revising
(2)
Organization of Memos and E-Mail Messages
·
Direct memos
contain a SUBJECT line, an opener stating the main idea, a body with
explanation and justification, and an action closing.
·
Most direct
memos convey nonsensitive information and thus frontload the main idea in the
opening.
·
Memos should
close with…
1.
Action
information including dates and deadlines
2.
A summary, or
3.
A closing
thought
(3)
Using E-Mail Effectively
·
It’s
important to take the time to organize your thoughts, compose carefully, and be
concerned with correct grammar and punctuation.
·
Messages can
travel (intentionally or unintentionally) long distances.
·
Computers
never forget! Even erased messages can
remain on disk drives.
·
E-mail is
most effective in delivering simple messages
1.
Get the
address right
2.
Avoid
misleading subject lines
3.
Be concise
4.
Don’t send
anything you wouldn’t want published
5.
Don’t use
e-mail to avoid contact
6.
Never respond
when you’re angry
7.
Care about
correctness
8.
Resist humor
and tongue-in-cheek comments
9.
Limit any
tendency to send blanket copies
10.
Use design to
improve readability of longer messages
11.
Consider
cultural differences
12.
Double check
before hitting the Send button
13.
Protect
against e-mail break-ins
Formatting
E-Mail Messages
·
Salutations
for e-mail messages are optional, and practice is as yet unsettled.
·
The body
should be typed with upper- and lowercase characters…cover just one topic, and
try to keep the total message under three screens…avoid boldface and italics.
·
Closing lines
may include the writer’s name, title, and organization.
(4)
Kinds of Memos
·
Routine
messages that can be grouped in three categories:
1.
Procedure and
information memos
2.
Request and
reply memos
3.
Confirmation
memos
Procedure
and Information Memos and E-mail Messages
·
Procedure and
information memos typically flow downward and convey clear information about
daily operations.
(5)
Request and Reply Memos and E-Mail Messages
·
Request and
reply memos follow the direct pattern in seeking or providing information.
·
When many
questions must be asked, list them.
·
In the
closing include an end date to promote a quick response.
·
Overused and
long-winded openers bore readers and waste their time.
·
Start
directly by responding to the writer’s request
·
After a
direct and empathic opener, provide the information requested in a logical and
coherent order.
(6)
Confirmation Memos and E-Mail Messages
·
Confirmation
memos—also called to-file or incident reports—record oral decisions,
directives, and discussions. They
create a concise, permanent record that could be important in the future.
·
Confirmation
memos provide a permanent record of oral discussions, decisions, and
directives.
·
Another type
of confirmation memo simply verifies receipt of materials or a change of
schedule.
Chapter 10: Negative Messages
(1) Strategies for Breaking Bad News
·
The sting of
bad news can be reduced by giving reasons and communicating sensitively.
·
In
communicating bad news, key goals include getting the receiver to accept it,
maintaining goodwill, and avoiding legal liability.
Using
the Indirect Pattern to Prepare the Reader
·
Bad news is
generally better when broken gradually.
·
The indirect
pattern softens the impact of bad news by giving reasons and explanations
first.
·
The indirect
plan consists of four parts:
1. Buffer
2. Reasons
3. Bad news
4. Close
(2) Avoiding Three Causes of Legal Problems
·
Abusive
Language
Ø
When the
abusive language is written, it’s called libel;
when spoken, it’s slander.
Ø Abusive language becomes legally actionable
when it is false, harmful to the person’s good name, and “published”—that is,
spoken within the presence of others or written.
Ø You may now be prosecuted if you transmit a
harassing or libelous message by e-mail on a computer bulletin board.
· Careless Language
Ø We must be certain that our words
communicate only what we intend.
Ø Careless language includes statements that
could be damaging or misinterpreted.
Ø Be wary of explanations that convey more
information than you intend.
Ø Be careful about what documents you save.
· The Good-Guy Syndrome
Ø Avoid statements that make you feel good
but may be misleading or inaccurate.
Ø Volunteering extra information can lead to
trouble.
Ø Don’t admit or imply responsibility for
conditions that caused damage or injury.
Even apologies may suggest liability.
(3) Developing Bad-News Messages
· To reduce negative feelings, use a buffer
opening for sensitive bad-news messages.
·
The buffer
should be relevant and concise and provide a natural transition to the
explanation that follows.
v Best
news
v Compliment
v Appreciation
v Agreement
v Facts
v Understanding
v Apology
·
Openers can
buffer the bad news with compliments, appreciation, agreement, relevant facts,
and understanding.
Presenting
the Reasons
·
Bad-news
messages should explain reasons before stating the negative news.
·
The most
important part of a bad-news letter.
Ø Being
cautious in explaining
Ø Citing
reader or other benefits if plausible
Ø Explaining
company policy
Ø Choosing
positive words
Ø Showing
that the matter was treated seriously and fairly
·
Readers accept
bad news more readily if they see that someone benefits.
·
Avoid passing
the buck or blaming others within your organization.
Cushioning
the Bad News
·
Techniques
for cushioning bad news include positioning it strategically, using the passive
voice, implying the refusal, and suggesting alternatives or compromises.
Closing
Pleasantly
·
Closings to
bad-news messages might include a forward look, an alternative, good wishes,
freebies, and resale or sale promotion information.
·
Avoid endings
that sound canned, insincere, inappropriate, or self-serving. Don’t invite further correspondence and
don’t refer to the bad news.
(4) When to Use the Direct Pattern
· The direct pattern is appropriate when the
receiver might overlook the bad news, when directness is preferred, when
firmness is necessary, or when the bad news is not damaging.
· Some researchers report that where the writer places the bad news is
not nearly so important as the tone
of the message.
·
The 3-x-3 writing
process is especially important in crafting bad-news messages because of the
potential consequences of poorly written messages.
q
Analysis,
Anticipation, and Adaptation
§
Analyze the
bad news so that you can anticipate its effect on the receiver.
§
Protect the
receiver’s ego.
q
Research,
Organization, and Composition
§
Avoid
presenting any weak reasons.
q
Revision,
Proofreading, and Evaluation
§
Put yourself
into the receiver’s shoes.
(5) Refusing Routine Requests
· You can use the direct or the indirect
pattern. If you have any doubt, use the
indirect pattern.
·
Reasons-before-refusal
pattern works well when you must turn down requests for favors, money,
information, action, and so forth.
·
Compliments
can help buffer the impact of request refusals.
·
Routine
request refusals focus on explanations and praise, maintain a positive tone,
and offer alternatives.
·
Requests for
contributions to charity are common.
Most big companies receive hundreds of requests annuallyàresources are usually limited
Declining
Invitations
(6) Sending Bad News to Customers
·
In handling
problems with orders, the indirect pattern is appropriate unless the message
has some good-news elements.
Denying
Claims
·
Letters that
say no to emotionally involved receivers will probably be your most challenging
communication task.
·
The
reasons-before-refusal plan helps you be empathic and artful in breaking bad
news.
·
Use neutral,
objective language to explain why the claims must be refused.
Refusing
Credit
·
Goals when
refusing credit include maintaining customer goodwill and avoiding actionable
language.
·
Keep the
refusal respectful, sensitive, and upbeat.
(7) Managing Negative Organization News
·
Internal
bad-news memos should use the indirect pattern to convey news that adversely
affects employees.
·
Organizations
can sustain employee morale by communicating bad news openly and honestly.
Saying
NO to Job Applicants
·
Letters that
deny applications for employment should be courteous and tactful but free of
specifics that could trigger lawsuits.
·
In the
reasons section it’s wise to be vague in explaining why the candidate was not
selected.
·
Keep
employment rejection letters general, simple, and short.
(8) Presenting Bad News in Other Cultures
· Communicating bad news in other cultures
may require different strategies.
Chapter 11: Report Planning and Research
(1) Clarifying and Classifying Reports
¨
Effective
business reports solve problems and answer questions systematically.
¨
Periodic,
situational, investigative, and compliance reports often present data without
interpretation.
¨
Written at
regular intervals to monitor operations
¨
Describe
nonrecurring activities
¨
Reports that
examine situations or problems and supply facts are investigative.
¨
Prompted by
the government, compliance reports answer such questions as “how much profit
did your organization earn and what taxes do you owe?”
¨ Justification/recommendation, yardstick,
and feasibility reports analyze alternatives, interpret findings, and often
make recommendations.
¨
Usually
travel upward to management, where the recommendations are approved or refused.
¨
Assesses the
alternatives by applying the same criteria to each, such as cost, service,
security, and reliability.
¨
Reports use
analysis to predict whether projects or alternatives are practical or
advisable.
¨ Proposals offer to solve problems,
investigate ideas, or sell products and services.
¨ Another form of proposal is the business
plan, a persuasive report that seeks to convince investors to fund a new
company.
(2) Functions of Reports
¨ Informational reports simply present data
without analysis or recommendations.
Analytical reports provide data, analyses, conclusions, and, if
requested, recommendations.
¨ The direct pattern places conclusions and
recommendations near the beginning of a report.
¨ They open with an introduction, followed by
the facts and a summary
¨ Unless readers are familiar with the topic,
they may find the direct pattern confusing.
¨ The indirect pattern is appropriate for analytical reports that seek to persuade or that convey bad news.
¨ They begin with an introduction or description of the problem, followed by facts and interpretation from the writer. They end with conclusions and recommendations.
¨ Helpful when readers are unfamiliar with the problem.
(3) Formats of Reports
¨ A report’s format depends on its length,
audience, topic, and purpose.
¨ Reports can be formal or informal depending
on the purpose, audience, and setting.
(4) Applying the 3-x-3 Writing Process to
Reports
¨ The best reports grow out of a seven-step
process beginning with analysis and ending with proofreading and evaluation.
¨ Before beginning a report, identify in a
clear statement the problem to be solved.
¨ A simple purpose statement defines the
focus of a report.
¨ Choose active verbs
¨ An expanded purpose statement considers
scope, significance, and limitations.
Anticipating
the Audience and Issues
¨ A major mistake is concentrating solely on
a primary reader.
¨ Major report problems should be broken into
subproblems—or factored—to highlight possible solutions.
Preparing
a Work Plan
¨ Such a plan keeps you on schedule and also
gives management a means of measuring your progress.
¨ A good work plan provides an overview of a
project: resources, priorities, course of action, and schedule.
(5) Researching Secondary Data
¨ Primary data come from firsthand experience
and observation; secondary data, from reading.
¨ Print sources are still the most visible
part of libraries.
Electronic
Databases
¨ Many researchers today begin by looking in
electronic databases
¨ A database is a collection of information
stored electronically so that it is accessible by computer and is digitally
searchable.
¨ Commercial databases offer articles,
reports, and other information on-line.
¨ InfoTrac, ABI-INFORM, and ProQuest are
popular on-line databases.
¨ Libraries pay for on-line services
available to walk-in or remote patrons.
The
Internet
¨ The World Wide Web is a collection of
hypertext pages that offer information and links.
¨ The Web is unquestionably one of the
greatest sources of information now available to anyone needing facts quickly
and inexpensively.
¨ Web browsers are software programs that
access Web pages and their links.
¨ Search tools such as Yahoo!, AltaVista, and
HotBot help you locate specific Web sites and information.
¨ Yahoo! Sorts Web sites into categories to
assist researchers.
¨ AltaVista gives the best results for
specific searches.
¨ Excite offers “More like this” feature.
¨ Once you have made a promising “hit,” you
can click to see similar listings.
¨ You must know how to use search engines to
make them most effective.
¨ Evaluate the currency, authority, content,
and accuracy of Web sites carefully.
(6) Generating Primary Data
¨ Primary data comes from firsthand
experience.
Surveys
¨ Surveys yield efficient and economical
primary data for reports.
¨ Although mailed surveys may suffer low
response rates, they are still useful in generating primary data.
¨ Effective surveys target appropriate
samples and ask a limited number of specific questions with quantifiable
answers.
¨ The way a question is stated influences its
response.
¨ The larger the sample, the more accurate the
resulting data is likely to be.
Interviews
¨ Interviews with experts yield useful report
data, especially when little has been written about a topic.
Observation
and Experimentation
¨ Some of the best report data come from
firsthand observation and investigation.
(7) Documenting Data
¨ Documenting data lends credibility, aids
the reader, and protects the writer from plagiarism.
¨ Select a suitable format to show textual
and bibliographic references for your report sources.
¨ References are usually cited in two places:
(1) a brief citation appears in the text and (2) a complete citation appears in
a bibliography at the end of the report.
¨ Three most common formats for citations and
bibliographies are…
1. The Chicago Manual of Style Format
2. Modern Language Association Format
3. American Psychological Association Format
¨ Model the format for electronic sources on
those of print sources.
Chapter 12: Report Organization and Presentation
(1) Interpreting Data
¨
Interpreting
data means sorting, analyzing, combining, and recombining to yield meaningful
information.
Tabulating
and Analyzing Responses
¨ Numerical data must be tabulated and
analyzed statistically to bring order out of chaos.
Tables
¨
Tables make
quantitative information easier to comprehend.
¨
Sometimes
data becomes more meaningful when cross-tabulated. This process allows analysis of two or more
variables together.
The Three Ms: Mean, Median,
Mode.
¨
Three
statistical concepts—mean, median, and mode—help you describe data.
¨
Means are very
useful to indicate central tendencies of figures, but they have one major flaw:
extremes at either end cause distortion.
¨
The mean is
the arithmetic average; the median is the midpoint in a group of figures; the
mode is the most frequently occurring figure.
¨
The median is
useful when extreme figures may warp the mean.
¨
The mode has
the advantage of being easily determined.
¨
Range represents the span between the highest and lowest values.
Correlations
¨
Correlations
between variables suggest possible relationships that will explain research
findings.
Grids
¨
Grids permit
analysis of raw verbal data by grouping and classifying.
(2) Drawing Conclusions in Reports
¨
Conclusions
summarize and explain the findings in a report. They represent the heart of a report.
¨
Effective
report conclusions are objective and bias-free.
¨
Avoid the
temptation to sensationalize or exaggerate your findings or conclusions.
(3) Writing Report Recommendations
¨
Effective
report conclusions are objective and bias-free. Effective recommendations offer specific suggestions on how to
solve a problem.
¨
Detailed
recommendations are written only when the report is authorized to do so.
¨
Your
intuition and your knowledge of the audience indicate how far your
recommendations should be developed.
¨
A good report
provides practical recommendations
¨
If possible,
make each recommendation a command.
(4) Organizing Data
¨
The direct
pattern is appropriate for informed or receptive readers; the indirect pattern
is appropriate when educating or persuading.
Ordering
Information Logically
¨
Organizing by
time, component, importance, criteria, or convention helps readers comprehend
data.
¨
Five common
organizational methods are…
Ø Time: establishing a chronology of events. Method is easy. Tends to be boring, repetitious, and lacking in emphasis.
Ø Component: data may be organized by components such
as location, geography, division, product, or part. Works best when the classifications already exist.
Ø Importance: involves beginning with the most
important item and proceeding to the least important—or vice versa. Organizing by level of importance saves the
time of busy readers and increases the odds that key information will be
retained.
Ø Criteria: to evaluate choices or plans fairly,
apply the same criteria to each. Helps
readers make comparisons.
Ø Convention: organizing by convention simplifies the
organizational task and yields easy-to-follow information.
(5) Providing Reader Cues
Introductions
¨ Good openers tell readers what topics will
be covered in what order and why.
¨ To maintain consistency, delay writing the
introduction until after you have completed the report.
Transitions
¨ Transitional expressions inform readers
where ideas are headed and how they relate.
Headings
¨ Good headings provide organizational cues
and spotlight key ideas.
¨ Headings should be brief, parallel, and
ordered in a logical hierarchy.
(6) Illustrating Data with Graphics
¨ Effective graphics clarify numerical data
and simplify complex ideas.
¨ They clarify data. They condense and simplify data. They emphasize data.
Matching
Graphics and Objectives
¨ Decide what data you want to highlight.
Tables
¨ Tables permit systematic presentation of
large amounts of data, while charts enhance visual comparisons.
Bar Charts
¨ Bar charts enable readers to compare
related items, see changes over time, and understand how parts relate to a
whole.
Line Charts
¨ Line charts illustrate trends and changes
in data over time.
Pie Charts
¨ Pie charts are most useful in showing the
proportion of parts to a whole.
Flow Charts
¨ Flow charts help the reader visualize the
process.
Organizational Charts
¨ Organizational charts show the line of
command and thus the flow of official communication from management to
employees.
Photographs, Maps, and
Illustrations
¨ Computer technology permits photographs, maps,
and illustrations to be scanned directly into a report.
(7) Incorporating Graphics in Reports
¨ Effective graphics are accurate and
ethical, avoid overuse of color or decorations, and include titles.
¨ Textual graphics should be introduced by
statements that help readers interpret them.
¨ Help the reader understand the significance
of a graphic.
Chapter 14: Proposals and Formal Reports
(1) Preparing Formal and Informal Proposals
¨
Proposals are
persuasive offers to solve problems, provide services, or sell equipment.
¨
Government
agencies and large companies use requests for proposals (RFPs) to solicit
competitive bids on projects.
¨
Most
proposals are external
¨
Proposals may
be divided into two categories: solicited or unsolicited
¨
Unsolicited
proposals are written when an individual or firm sees a problem to be solved
and offers a proposal to do so.
¨
They are
sales presentations…they must be persuasive
Components
of Informal Proposals
¨ Informal proposals may be presented in
short (two-to-four-page) letters.
¨ Letter
proposals may contain six
principal components: introduction, background, proposal, staffing, budget, and
authorization request.
Introduction
¨
You need to
provide a “hook” to capture the reader’s interest
Background, Problem, Purpose
¨
The
background section identifies the problem and discusses the goals or purposes
of the project.
Proposal, Plan, Schedule
¨
Tell what you
propose to do and how it will benefit the reader.
¨
Include a
schedule of activities or timetable showing when events take place.
¨
The actual
proposal section must give enough information to secure the contract but not so
much detail that the services are no longer needed.
Staffing
¨
The staffing
section of a proposal describes the credentials and expertise of the project
leaders.
¨
Along with
other resources such as computer facilities and special programs for analyzing
statistics
¨
Good place to
endorse and promote your staff
Budget
¨
Because a
proposal is a legal contract, the budget must be carefully researched.
¨
A list of
proposed project costs
¨
Protect
yourself with a deadline for acceptance.
Authorization Request
¨
Informal
proposals often close with a request for approval or authorization.
(2) Special Components of Formal Proposals
¨ Formal proposals respond to big projects
¨ Formal proposals might also contain a copy
of the RFP, a letter of transmittal, an abstract, a title page, a table of
contents, a list of figures, and an appendix.
¨ The persuasive letter of transmittal
briefly presents the major features and benefits of your proposal.
¨ An abstract summarizes a proposal’s
highlights for specialists; an executive summary does so for managers.
¨ Today, however, companies increasingly
prefer on-line proposals
(3) Writing Formal Reports
¨ Formal reports discuss the results of a
process of thorough investigation and analysis
(4) Components of Formal Reports
¨ Like proposals, formal reports are divided
into many segments to make information comprehensible and accessible.
Cover
Title
page
¨ Name of the report typed in uppercase
letters
¨ All items after the title are typed in a combination
of upper- and lowercase letters.
Letter
or Memo of Transmittal
¨ A letter or memo of transmittal gives a
personalized overview of a formal report.
¨ Direct pattern and is usually less formal
than the report itself.
¨ If a report is going to different readers,
a special transmittal letter or memo should be prepared for each.
Table
of Contents
List of Figures
¨ For reports with several figures or
illustrations, you may wish to include a list of figures to help readers locate
them.
Executive Summary or Abstract
¨ The length and complexity of the abstract
or executive summary depend on the length of and audience for the report.
(5) Introduction
¨ Formal reports begin with an introduction
that sets the scene and announces the subject.
(6) Body
¨ The body discusses, analyzes, interprets,
and evaluates the research findings or solution to the initial problem.
Conclusions
¨ Tells what the findings mean
Recommendations
¨ The recommendations section of a formal
report offers specific suggestions for solving a problem.
Appendix
Works
Cited, References, or Bibliography
¨ The bibliography section of a formal report
identifies sources of ideas mentioned in the report.
(7) Final Writing Tips
¨ Formal reports require careful attention to
all phases of the 3-x-3 writing process.
¨ Smart report writers allow themselves
plenty of time, research thoroughly, draw up a useful outline, and work on a
computer.
¨ Effective formal reports maintain
parallelism in verb tenses, avoid first-person pronouns, and use the active
voice.