12.4 North American Indian Medicine

Medical problems in aboriginal times included wounds, sprains, broken bones, burns, and other minor skin ailments. Rheumatism and arthritis affected the old. Smoke-filled lodges caused sore eyes. Dental problems were fairly common. Women had problems with menstruation and childbirth. Intestinal worms were endemic.

"Diseases of civilization" such as heart disease, arteriosclerosis and cancer were rare in aboriginal times. Very few viral or bacterial diseases existed in North America before contact. Epidemic "crowd" diseases such as measles and smallpox did not affect Indians until European contact when these diseases came to the New World.

The North American Indians did not usually regard physical problems as distinct from spiritual problems. Some tribes had herbalists as well as shamans; however, in many tribes the two roles were combined in a single person. Even when a physical remedy was applied, the cause of the ailment might still be scribed to evil spirits. In many respects, Indian medicines in the days after contact were not much different from those in Europe. Early explorers, particularly clergymen, took an interest in simples (herbals) used in the Americas.

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I. THE INFLUENCE OF INDIAN MEDICINALS

Official drugs in the United States are listed in the United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.), the National Formulary (NF), and the Homeopathic Pharmacopeia. Do not confuse these resources with the more popular Physicians Desk Reference (PDR) or the Merck Manual.

The United States Pharmacopeia dates from 1820; the National Formulary from 1888. Drugs that are listed must have proven efficacy. Many are natural products we know from food preparation such as oil of wintergreen and cocoa butter

Together, about 220 substances used by Indians have been listed in the USP or NF. Some 41 new substances of American Indian usage have been added as official since 1890.

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II. WHY ARE THERE MEDICINAL CHEMICALS IN PLANTS?

The chemicals from plants that have medicinal value are called phytochemicals. These are part of a class of chemicals produced by plants that are known as secondary metabolites. They are chemicals not essential to the ordinary life activities of the plant, such as photosynthesis.

Secondary metabolites are probably defensive in nature. Since plants are stationary, they engage in 'chemical warfare' in order to survive. Penicillin, produced by a mold, wards off predators. We have adapted it for medicinal use. Richard Schulteis, the father of modern ethnobotany has said that "plants live by their chemical wits."

The largest groups of phytochemicals are the alkaloids. These include caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine from the coca leaf. Their discovery by aboriginal peoples was probably by trial and error. It was usual for an aboriginal practitioner in the Americas or Australia to be familiar with more than 150 different medicinal plants in his/her realm.

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III. TOTEMS AND SYMBOLS

Virtually all Native Americans followed a system of subtle elements that correspond to the four directions of the compass: north, south, east, and west. In addition, two other directions (or powers) complete the mandala (a graphic symbol of the universe) of natural healing. These are "up" that represents the Grandfather, the Great Spirit, and "down" representing Grandmother, the Earth.

The East represents the light of wisdom, illumination, freshness, spring, peace, and understanding. From the South comes the power of life, fertility, growth, and warmth. The West represents maturity, autumn rain, thunder or the quality of things coming to an end. From the North come the cold purifying winds, the cleansing of austerity, the strength of endurance, and the white snows and hairs of old age.

The Native American healer classifies herbs and medicines according to the Four Directions and the Two Powers. (My note: Humoral medicine survives in many parts of the world today. This system classifies diseases and treatments as 'hot' or 'cold'.)

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IV. THE DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES

The Doctrine of Signatures says that every medicinal herb reveals its therapeutic properties by a 'sign'. This may seem outlandish to you. It has been practiced by aboriginal people world wide and is accepted by many herbalists today.

According to this theory, plants bear a relationship to something else related to the ailment. A plant with a long twisted root might be used to treat a snake bite. Milkweed and other plants with milky juice might be used to cure breast problems. Dandelions were considered good for disorders of the bile because their yellow flowers were the color of a jaundiced person's skin.

Plants were considered related to the four elements that we discussed above. Fruit and seeds ripening in the sun were related to the element of fire. Usually, plants were used according to their similarity as described above. Occasionally they would be used in opposition as treatments/diseases are correlated in the humoral medicine hot/cold concept.

Incidentally, homeopathic medicine is based on a variant of the Signatures concept. It is the homeopathic concept of 'like is cured by like.' that uses medicines that mimic disease symptoms. Homeopaths were the first to actively research native American plants for their healing properties. This inspired a renewed research among orthodox physicians in America into the native American flora.

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V. PLANT PREPARATION FOR MEDICINAL USE

Plants were gathered when they contained the highest concentration of the desired active ingredient. Inner bark was gathered in the spring. Leaves were usually picked just before the plant was in bloom, and the roots of annual plants were dug at the same time. The roots of perennial plants were gathered in the autumn, while they were storing various substances for winter. Many plants were dried for later use, though in some cases the active ingredients would be lost.

Like pharmacists early in this century, Indians distinguished between a decoction and an infusion. (My note: pay attention to these definitions.) A decoction is a liquid preparation prepared by extracting the crude drug with actively boiling water. The way we make coffee is an example. In some cases, the admixture is deliberately boiled for a time to concentrate the solution. An infusion is a liquid preparation prepared by extracting the crude drug with water after it has boiled--and is allowed to cool.

A good example is the way we make tea. Why the difference in technique? Infusions and decoctions can extract different materials from the same plant material. In its early days, modern pharmacology prepared concoctions, which were simply a mixture of many ingredients--a sort of 'shot gun therapy.'

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Some plants were far more important than others. The conifers (including juniper and yew which actually have berries rather than cones) were used to treat colds, wounds, inflammations, burns, sore eyes, rheumatism, headaches and insect bites. Willow bark was extensively used for fever and pain. Cherry bark was widely used as a sedative. Yarrow, milkweed, calamus, sagebrush, and several members of the mint family were each used for a variety of ailments throughout North America.

Many Indian herbal remedies--often the most valuable--were potentially toxic and had to be used in moderation. Skillful preparation was often necessary. (My note: the challenge of pharmacology is for a medication to be effective in treatment without being toxic.)

In many respects, Indian medicine was quite effective. Willow, poplar, and wintergreen contained salicylate which is chemically related to acetylsalicylic acid, known to us commercially as aspirin. The Indians used these materials for the same purpose of reducing fever and pain. Pipsissewa, spiraea, and black, yellow, and cherry birch also contained salicylate, though these plants were used less frequently.

Cherry bark contains hydrocyanic (prussic) acid and is still used as a cough suppressant. Coniferous trees such as balsam fir, pine, and cedar contain volatile oils used to reduce nasal and pulmonary congestion, and the menthol in various mints served the same function. Tablets and ointments of pine and mineral oils are used for similar purposes today.

The resin from coniferous trees was also used as an antiseptic application on wounds, and the inner bark was mashed as a poultice. Oak, raspberry, sumac, dogwood, alumroot, and many other plants contain astringent ingredients such as a tannin which serve to reduce the flow of blood and other fluids.

Many herbs are rich in vitamins, mineral, and as purifying agents. They acted as general tonics. Witch hazel is still used today for sore muscles, pennyroyal as an insect repellant, and raspberry as a treatment for diarrhea. Many herbal remedies used today, or the related synthetic drugs, were actually adopted from Indian medicine. Other medicinal plants such as willow and yarrow were equally popular in early European folk medicine.

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VI. THE SWEAT BATH

The sweat bath had ceremonial functions, but also was used also in the treatment of rheumatism and fever. Usually the sweat lodge was a small domed structure with a framework of arched poles and a cover of hides or bark, though sometimes a patient simply sat under a blanket. Rocks were heated and rolled into the lodge. Water containing plant medicinals was then sprinkled on the rocks to form steam, or the plant material was laid on the rocks and plain water was sprinkled on both the plants and the rocks. The sweat bath was usually followed by a plunge into cold water.

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VII. OTHER MEDICINAL PRACTICES

Non-herbal Indian medicine often resembled modern biomedical practices. Inflamed tumors and abscesses were lanced. Arrowheads and bullets were removed whenever possible. The Ojibwa made a bulb syringe out of a bladder and quill for washing out wounds. A number of tribes are known to have sewn up major wounds, and minor amputations were sometimes performed. Dislocated limbs were pulled back into place. Fractures were held immobile with wooden splints. The Ojibwa heated birch bark and bound it around a fractured limb, and the bark of lodgepole pine as a cast of a splint, and other tribes used other kinds of wood or bark. Decayed teeth were struck out. Snake bites were treated with sucking and binding.

Minor cuts and sores were treated with antiseptic or astringent lotions or washes. More serious wounds were treated with poultices (moist medicaments) held in place with buckskin or strips of inner bark.

Several tribes across North America drank an infusion of the roots or inner bark of willow, or applied poultices to the head to cure headaches. (My note: our present day aspirin is a chemical variant of the naturally occurring salicylic acid found in willow, birch, and other native trees. Aspirin in its chemically modified form is more easily tolerated than are the crude extracts.)

..... CJ '96

Resources

Gill, S. Native American Traditions Belmont: Belmont Publishing Company, 1983.

Goodchild, P. Survival Skills of the North American Indians Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1984.

Vogel, V. American Indian Medicine Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.

Weiss, G. & Weiss, S. The Healing Herbs New York: Wings Books, 1985.