G Stanley Hall (1891)- founder of Developmental Psychology
developed/utilized the survey method for studying
children
Looked at age & group differences (urban-rural,
racial ....) tried to identify what was common about development across
groups and within groups
Alfred Binet (1905)- continued with survey method worked with Simon
to develop the IQ test
IQ test was only to identify students who had learning problems
instead of finding similarities, looked at individual differences and
individual abilities
Sigmund Freud (1920s) - first real theory on human development
-theory was developed from observations with patients
Psychosexual Theory of Development
heavy emphasis on free association, hypnosis, and
dream analysis
these were not only used in part of the treatment
for his patients but also to gain insight of the unconscious motives (especially
repressed motives)
- 2 basic instinct that every person has
1) sexual instinct
2) aggressive instinct
3 components of personality
1) id - pleasure principle
- unconscious
- irrational instinct driven
- these ideas often brought out in the latent content of dreams
- latent content - repressed impulses
- manifest content - stream of events that pass through mind
2) ego - reality principle
- primarily conscious
- mediator between id, superego and external reality
- rational tries to make sense of the real world
3) superego - idealistic principle
- primarily unconscious
- internal authority figure
- comprised of the ego ideal (ideal behaviors that are rewarded) and the
conscience (things prohibited from doing based on punishments)
5 stages of development
1) Oral stage - birth to 12 months
Focus is on the mouth
Gratification through sucking chewing eating biting
Fixate - thumb sucking, preoccupation with food
and eating (possible explanation for eating disorders), focus on taking
things in and holding them within oneself (power wealth)
2) Anal stage - 12-36 months
Focus on anal region
Gratification from holding and expelling fecal waste
Potty training
Fixated - too lax - messiness, disorganization,
wastefulness,
- too strict - possessiveness, concern with cleanliness orderliness, retentive
personality
3) Phallic stage - 3 - 6 years
Focus on genitals
Gratification through expressing love to opposite
sex parent
Oedipal Complex and Electra Complex
Initial identification/understanding of self as
a sexual being
Fixated - rivalry with same sex, inordinate ties
to opposite sex parent, difficulty achieving & maintaining appropriate
relationships with same sex and opposite sex peers
4) Latency stage - 6-11 years
Rest period
Energy channeled into emotionally safe areas school,
athletics, social activities
Focus is on same sex activities
5) Genital stage - 12 and older
Reawakening of sexual urges
Gratification through mature adult relationships
including sexual relationships and reproduction
Leads to independence from parents & balance
between love & work
Erik Erikson
Basic Trust vs Mistrust - 0-12 month
When a child signals (cries) that s/he needs something, do these needs
get meet?
If yes, then a child learns to trust, that s/he
can depend on other people.
If no, or if needs are inconsistently meet, then
a child learns to mistrust, views people as unreliable.
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt - 12-36 months
Child begins to learn to do things on there own - not only potty training
but also things like
Eating, Dressing oneself, Brushing their teeth and hair, ...
If a child learns these tasks, then s/he gains a
sense of independence or autonomy.
If a child does not master these tasks, then s/he
doubts his/her ability to learn tasks and feels embarrassed or ashamed
when s/he need assistance or has an "accident."
Initiative vs Guilt - 3-6 years
Children take this sense of independence in other directions.
In play activity you will see them setting up the rules, setting goals,
they will make plans "When I get home I want to ...."
If children can successfully assert independence,
set goals, make plans ... then they will develop a sense of initiative.
If children assert independence in socially inappropriate
ways, then the conflict that arises between them and parents (or other
authority figures) leads to a sense of guilt.
Industry vs Inferiority - 6-12 years
Children start school and begin to compare their skills to those of
their peer.
If they are performing at a similar or higher level
than peers in some, most, or all areas, then they will develop a sense
of industry. That is, they will feel self assured and as if they
can master the work or new task(s).
If they see themselves as "not measuring up" (performing
below their peers in some most or all areas), then they will develop a
sense of inferiority. That is, they will not feel like they can learn new
tasks and will often stop trying.
Identity vs Role Confusion - 12-20 years
This is the period when children attempt to answer the question, "who
am I."
If children/adolescents can establish themselves
in more adult roles (work, socially ... ) separate from parents then they
have established an identity.
If children have difficulty answering this question
and/or establishing themselves in adult roles, then they will be confused
about the roles that they are to play.
Intimacy vs Isolation - 20- 40 years
This is when we establish lifelong and loving relationships. This is
the period when people often get married.
If people can establish long term relationships
with people (possibly marry but not necessary), then within these relationships
they will develop this sense of intimacy.
If people can not establish long term relationships
with others, then they develop this feeling that no one understand them
and that they are alone in the world (isolation).
Generativity vs Stagnation - 40-65 years
This is the stage when people are raising their kids, helping them
to get started in the world, moving up in the job world (promotions), they
begin to get some of the "comforts" of life.
If people feel like they are productive in their
work, that they are "doing their job" helping their children develop into
productive members of society .... then they gain a sense of generativity.
If people don't feel like they are getting anywhere
at work, they move from low paying job to low paying job, or have problems
keeping a job , if they feel like their kids do not
listen and are not following the right paths then they develop a sense
of stagnation ... a feeling like there life is going nowhere.
Ego Integrity vs Despair - over 65
This is when people enter old age and look back on their life and question
whether their life had meaning, whether they were productive in their life,
whether they ever attained the goals
that they set for themselves .....
If after evaluating one's life people feel that
their life had meaning, then they develop ego integrity ... and a general
happy about who they are and what they have done.
If after evaluating one's life people feel that
their life did not really have much meaning, then they develop a sense
of despair.
Behaviorism
Pavlov - Classical Conditioning
UCS
UCR
CS
CR
Watson
habits - well learned associations between external stimuli and observable
response
Little Albert- 9 months old
UCS
UCR
CS
CR
Skinner - operant conditioining
Reinforcements
Punishments
Reinforcement
|
|
|
|
negative --------------------------------------positive
|
|
|
|
Punishment
Bandura - Observational Learning
- attention
- retention
- motivation
- replication
TV violence and the Bobo Doll
Strict behaviorism suggests that the environment generates some stimulus that a person behaviorally responses to which then changes the environment providing another stimulus for the person to respond to and so on.
Environment <------------>Behavior
(Stimulus)
(Response)
Bandura believed that if behavior was simply S-R based, then we should not see as much variability as we see within and between subjects. That is people often think before they respond and their thoughts or belief may alter their behavior.
Reciprocal Determinism
- 3 way interaction between
- Person's thoughts, beliefs,
Person
- Behavior
/ \
- Environment
/ \
Behavior ----- Environment
Piaget - studies under Binet examining/developing intelligence test
- marking answers as right or wrong does not allow us to understand
how children are thinking.
- examining why children choose wrong answers can give us insight into
their cognitive development
scheme
equilibration
disequilibrium
assimilation
accomodation
4 stages of development
Sensorimotor - 0-2
start with innate reflexes
learn object permanence
representational thought
Preoperational - 2-7
expanded uses of symbols (language, pretend play)
children learn that other people do not have the
same perspective
as they do begin to learn
cause-effect relationships
Concrete Operational - 7-11
expansion of cause-effect relationships
learn hierarchical structures
Conservation tasks
However .... things at this stage need to be concrete
... observable
Formal Operational - 11 and older
cause-effect relationships further expanded
hierarchical structures for non-observable things
Abstract thinking
Information Processing
- Basically compares the mind to a computer
- Robert Kail
- interaction of the environment and genetics is like the
interaction of software and hardware on a computer.
Ethological/Evolutionary Perspective
Based on the assumption that people like other animals are born with
"biologically preprogrammed" behaviors.
- behaviors are the product of evolution
- behaviors are adaptive and contribute to survival
Konrad Lorenz (1937) - imprinting -
- observed ducks and found that they have an automatic
response to follow mom
- claim that since they do this from birth, it must
be biologically preprogrammed
- this behavior is adaptive and contributes to survival
because if they did not do this, they would quickly become
prey to other animals
- further investigation led to Lorenz to discover
that
- the following behavior
was automatic ... newborn ducklings did not need to be taught this behavior
- this behavior occurred
in a critical period ... that is, newborn ducklings will display this following
behavior
only if they have someone/something to follow within a small window after
the bird has hatched.
- if the duckling has nothing to follow within this
critical period, it will never "learn" this adaptive behavior
- finally, this following behavior is irreversible.
Once a duckling imprints on someone/something and begins to
follow it, the duckling
remains attached to it.
So those ducklings that followed mom had a better chance at survival
and passing along their genetic makeup to later generation (natural selection)
Bowlby (1969) crying
- infants cry is nothing more than a distress signal that we see in
other animals
- the cry attracts the attention of the caregiver
- caregivers are biologically predisposed to attend to the cries of
young
- the cry ensures that basic needs are meet
- provides contact with caregivers to form initial emotional attachment
- if cries not attended to, then infant will not signal caregivers
as often, there will be less contact, and a secure attachment will not
be formed
So attachment took longer to develop and incorporated learning (infant
needed to learn to discriminate mom, dad, ... from stranger) but developed
out of this biologically preprogrammed behavior of crying
Critical Period that is used with animals
- narrow time window in which a behavior will develop given appropriate
environmental conditions
- if environmental conditions are presented before or after the time
window but not during the window, then the behavior will
not manifest
Sensitive Period is used to describe human development
- similar to critical period except
- time window is generally longer
- beginning and end of window is not as well defined
- possible to learn behavior outside of the time window, however learning
takes longer, it is harder to grasp concepts, and development does not
progress as far as it would in the sensitive period.
The Ecological Perspective - Bronfenbrenner (1979)
- Closely examines the influence of the environment on behavior
- see environments as a series of imbedded circle with the child at
the center
- the closer the environment is to the child, the more influence it
exerts on the development of the child
Microsystem - innermost environment
- activities and interactions that occur in the person's immediate
surrounding
- includes the child's family, daycare, preschool, youth groups
Mesosystem - 2nd layer of environments
- this is the interconnections between microsystems interaction between
the family and the daycare system
interaction between the youth group and preschool
- if the interconnection of microsystems are positive, then the child
will flourish in both microsystem
- if the interconnection of microsystems are negative, then the child
will experience difficulty in at least one (if not both) of the microsystems.
Exosystem - 3rd layer of environments
- environments that the child is not part of
- environments that influence the microsystems and therefore indirectly
influence the child
- parent's work environment - extended family
- teacher's home environment - school board
Macrosystem - 4th layer of environments
- Culture, subculture, or social context in which other layers are
imbedded
Chronosystem - Time dimension
- how the child's age interacts and affects the interactions with the
environments and microsystems