CHAPTER 5. ON LOCATION This chapter will discuss the hazards of filming on location. This will include general fire and life safety hazards on location, hazards to the camera crew (cameras, lights, scaffolding and rigging), costume and makeup hazards, and environmental hazards (heat, cold, water). Many of these hazards and the appropriate precautions are also applicable to permanent studios. High risk filming situations, such as special effects and stunts, will be dicussed in subsequent chapters. GENERAL FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY A permanent film studio has to meet a variety of fire and life safety codes and regulations in order to obtain a certificate of occupancy. Special permits for particular activities, for example involving pyrotech- nics special effects, may also be required. Temporary filming locations have to obtain a variety of permits for each location (see Chapter 10). Many of the recommendations mentioned here are based on the California State Fire Marshal's Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. More complete details on fire regulations can be found in appropriate Uniform Fire Codes. Access Routes and Exits Access routes and exitways must be clearly defined by agreement with the local Fire Department. They must be kept clear in order to allow emergency vehicles to gain access to the various parts of the location, and to allow people on the location to escape quickly and easily in case of emergency. Routine inspections should be made to ensure that props, camera equipment, sets, etc. do not block agreed upon access and emergency escape routes. A particular problem can occur when filming takes place inside an occupied building. Care must be taken to not block corridors, stairways and other exits with equipment and electrical cables. Particular recommendations include: 1. Exit signs should be posted in rooms or areas containing more than 50 people. Exit lighting should be provided. 2. Maximum travel distance from any point to an exterior exit door, horizontal exit, exit passageway or enclosed staircase should be 150 feet if the building is not sprinklered, and 200 feet if the building is sprinklered throughout. 3. Exits to streets or public passways must be continuous and unobstructed by fences, walls, vehicles, etc. 4. Electrical cables passing through exit doorways and corridors must be maintained at the sides in order to minimize obstruction. 5. If normal exits are obstructed for filming reasons, alternate exits must be provided. Fire Hazards A fire starts when something that can burn is ignited in the presence of oxygen. Around a filming location, materials that may burn include dry vegetation, sawdust and wood dust from preproduction, combustible tents and other structures, fuels, flammable and combustible liquids, spray paints, and many other sources. Oxygen is always available in the air, but compressed oxygen cylinders can be a source of extra oxygen which greatly increases the fire risk. Finally, sources of ignition can include sparks from electrical equipment, hot lighting equipment and other heated surfaces, welding and cutting operations, smoking, static electricity, etc. Prevention predominantly consists of keeping materials that burn from coming in contact with sources of ignition. Combustible Materials Adequate housekeeping is the major strategy for controlling ordinary combustibles like wood scraps, wood dust, paper, rags, etc. so they are not a possible fuel source. 1. All floors, closets, platforms, etc. should be kept clear of combustible materials and rubbish. 2. Combustibles, waste materials and rubbish should be stored in approved containers or disposed of properly. 3. Keep unnecessary dry vegetation at least 20 feet from buildings. 4. Oily rags, paint rags, oily waste, or similar materials subject to spontaneous combustion should be kept in approved oily waste cans. These should be in each area where such materials are used and stored, and emptied daily. Placing these materials in buckets of water will also achieve safe storage. 5. Keep stored combustible materials away from exits and fire equipment. 6. Combustible materials used in filming such as sawdust or shavings on floors or ground must be made flame resistant or, when approved by the fire department, kept adequately damp. 7. Combustible tents should be flame-proofed. Flammable Liquids and Gases 1. Empty, liquefied petroleum gas tanks may be changed on location, but refueling must be done at authorized refueling stations or commercial refueling vendors. 2. All propane cylinders must be secured to prevent damage to the cylinder, or to personnel, from falling cylinders. This includes those on catering trucks, and ones used for fire special effects. 3. Propane heaters and other equipment must be the specified size, hoses and fittings approved for LPG service, and appliances and fittings maintained in good condition. 4. Propane heaters must not be used in tents. 5. Only approved flammable liquid safety containers with a maximum capacity of 5 gallons should be used. 6. Transferring flammable liquids and fuels should be done in a properly protected and ventilated area. 7. Refueling operations should obey the following guidelines: * Refueling operations must be attended and operated by trained personnel. * Turn off all equipment being refueled. * Fuel transfer nozzles must be held by direct hand pressure. * No smoking within 50 feet. * The refueler vehicle should exhibit a sign stating "Flammable and No Smoking" when on location. * The vehicle should carry at least one 2A-10BC fire extinguisher. Chapter 4 on Preproduction contains more information on the storage and use of flammable and combustible liquids. Fire and Other Sources of Ignition 1. Fire should not be present near combustible materials, unless the materials are part of the filming, and the have been flame proofed. 2. Equipment used to create fires should be maintained in good condition. 3. Fire extinguishing equipment and trained personnel must be present when fire effects are used. See the Fire section of Chapter 7 for more information on the use of fires during filming. 4. Smoking must be prohibited in all places where combustible or flammable materials are stored or used. This includes: * in areas where fuels, flammable or combustible liquids are stored or used * around flammable gases * around spray painting or finishing operations * where pyrotechnics or explosives are stored, mixed or used * inside tents 5. Sparks or hot surfaces such as lighting equipment, engine mufflers, and catalytic converters on vehicles should not be used near combustibles or flammable liquids or gases. Exhaust spark arrestors may be required for gasoline-powered engines. 6. Sources of static electricity should not be present around flammable liquids or gases. MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY Automobiles, trucks, boats, airplanes, helicopters and other methods of transportation are common on film locations. Hazards from these can include traffic accidents, parking problems, use in filming, and refueling risks. Refueling was discussed in the section on General Fire and Life Safety earlier in this chapter. The use of vehicles in filming will be discussed in subsequent chapters. This section will discuss general problems. Operation of Vehicles 1. Occupants should fasten seat belts on vehicles where they are provided. This is required by OSHA. 2. Only individuals with appropriate licenses should operate vehicles. 3. Driving under unusual conditions (e.g. in deserts or off road) should only be done by individuals experienced with those conditions. 4. All relevant traffic laws should be obeyed. Parking Motor vehicles on location can become hazards if they are parked so that they obstruct fire hydrants, emergency vehicle access, or pedestrian egress from buildings or tents. In addition vehicles that contain hazardous ingredients are a risk if parked near eating areas or other areas where people congregate. 1. The transportation coordinator for the production company should work with the Fire Department to establish safe parking areas. 2. Ensure that vehicles do not block emergency access or escape routes. 3. Park vehicles needed for filming operations at least 20 feet from tents. Other vehicles should be at least 100 feet from tents. 4. Vehicles should be parked at least 100 feet from areas where pyrotechnics/special effects materials are stored or used. Multiple Dressing Room Units Trailers are commonly used on location as multiple dressing room units. 1. The driver/operator should have an appropriate chauffeur's license for driving the size of vehicle and for driving passengers (assuming people are riding in the dressing room trailer). If a policy of no riders is adopted, then this would not be necessary. 2. While parked and in use, a qualified person should be present to operate the unit. 3. Generator exhausts shall be elevated a minimum of three feet above floor level, and vented to the outside at all times. 4. Skirts or other downward projections encircling the unit shall not be closer than one foot to the ground. 5. Before refueling the vehicle or generator, the unit shall be shut down and all occupants removed. Special caution should be taken when priming the carburetor. Fueling should be done safely in accordance with all local and state laws. 6. All portable electric heaters must be equipped with safety tipover switches. Such heaters should only be used temporarily in extreme cold weather or in case of malfunction of permanent heaters. 7. A single handrail or grab bar shall be required when the floor level is over three feet high. All steps should be stable, slip proof and properly constructed. Do not use boxes, concrete blocks, etc. The steps shall be kept clear of snow, ice, mud, and other debris. 8. No anti-freeze shall be added to potable water tanks. CAMERAS The actual filming can sometimes involve placing the camera crew and equipment in hazardous situations, for example shooting from a helicopter, moving vehicle, camera crane, or side of a mountain. When this will occur, the call sheet should describe the type of hazard. There are several basic types of camera mountings: fixed tripods, dollies for mobile cameras, camera cranes for high shots, and insert camera cars for shots on moving vehicles. The following sections will discuss procedures for working safely in such situations. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. A detailed discussion of safety problems involving helicopters and airplanes, as well as underwater photography will be discussed in Chapter 8 on stunts. Camera Cranes Some dollies or traveling trucks can be equipped with a counter-weighted boom for lifting the camera and operator to small heights, but for large elevations, heavy camera cranes are used. These can carry several people besides the camera. Because of the height, there are a variety of possible hazards, including power lines and other overhead obstructions, falls, high winds, and collapse of the crane. The following are some safety recommendations. 1. Camera cranes come under OSHA regulations that apply to aerial devices or lifts (CFR 1910.67). 2. The intention to use camera cranes should be noted in the call sheet to warn people to keep clear of its working radius and be responsive to the requests of the grip in charge. 3. The key or dolly grip are the only experts as to adequacy of equipment for a particular shot under given conditions. All preparation of equipment and supports should be under the control of an experienced grip designated by the key grip. 4. All lift controls should be tested prior to use. Never use incomplete or damaged equipment 5. The crane base and pedestal should be plumb level. Risers used to raise a crane should be capable of supporting the weight of crane and personnel, and be adequately braced. 6. Tracking surfaces should be both properly laid, and constructed in accordance with the supplier/manufacturer recommendations. 7. Cranes on unstable surfaces, such as sand, should have the blocking set to prevent collapse if the surface shifts. This also applies to laying track or supports over changes in surface or height. 8. The crane arm should never be left unbalanced. Wear gloves when loading or unloading uncoated lead ingots as weights. 9. Do not pass under arm of crane without permission of the grip in charge. 10. The minimum crew for a camera crane should be three people. All personnel on the platform should wear body belts and have a line attached to the platform or boom. People or equipment should not be added or removed from the crane without permission of the grip in charge. 11. There should be clear announcements and warnings concerning when and where cranes will be moved. 12. Care should be taken to ensure no contact of the crane or personnel with overhead obstructions. Similar care should be taken with camera cranes on moving vehicles. 13. A crane should not be left unattended while in use or being prepared for use. 14. Using the Ontario guidelines, the minimum distance from any part of a camera crane to live power lines should be as follows: Voltage Minimum distance 750 - 150,000 volts 10 feet (3 meters) 150,000 - 250,000 volts 15 feet (4.5 meters) more than 250,000 volts 20 feet (6 meters) OSHA regulations set the minimum distance at 10 feet up to 50,000 volts, plus 0.4 inches for every 1,000 volts over 50,000, or twice the length of the line insulator with a minimum of 10 feet. Insert Camera Cars Films involving moving vehicle scenes are a major cause of accidents to camera operators. Since 1980, four camera operators have been killed and many more injured in scenes involving car stunts, often from the vehicle hitting the stationery camera and operator, or from overturning of the camera car. Precautions connected with vehicle stunts in general will be discussed in Chapter 8. In this section I will discuss the particular problems of insert camera cars. Cameras can be mounted directly on moving vehicles that are to be filmed. This can be hazardous if the cameras and/or operators interfere with the vision of the driver. In addition, when the cameras are located on the outside of the vehicle, there are substantial risks to the camera operators. It is recommended that insert camera cars be used instead, whenever possible. Insert camera cars are vehicles that have been engineered for the mounting of cameras and the towing of the vehicle to be filmed. They can carry several people. 1. Safety checks using a checklist should be done before and after each run by qualified personnel. Records should be kept on each run. 2. All rigging should be done by experienced personnel. Ground fault circuit interrupters should be connected to electrical circuits. For filming at night, the insert camera car should have two portable tail lights attached to the towed vehicle to provide rear lighting. 3. There should be a dry run in advance of actual filming. Information on who has the authority to abort, a description of the intended action, and any possible variations, should be provided. 4. For general transportation of production personnel, the insert camera car should not carry more than nine people (including driver), according to the Industry Subcommittee to Investigate Safety Aspects of Insert Camera Cars. Ontario recommends a maximum of seven unless the camera car is designed for more. The rear of the car should carry a placard stating its maximum safe loading number. 5. While on a highway or public road, all traffic laws should be obeyed. 6. Only the operator should be in the cab while the vehicle is in motion, to ensure clear lines of sight. 7. Only essential personnel and equipment should be on the vehicle for the actual filming. 8. Only qualified stunt performers should be on the towbar or exterior of towed vehicles. 9. Special safety procedures should be developed for hazardous conditions such as bad weather, stunts, explosives etc. (See also Chapters 7 and 8.) 10. Special attention should be given to communications during filming. Any special communications procedures to be used should be discussed in advance with all involved in the scene to be filmed. One individual should be the only contact with the insert camera car operator via a dediccated, open radio channel. In case of radio silence, an alternate method of communications should be designated. 11. The following sound signals have been recommended as standard signals for the industry: a) prior to moving forward - sound 2 short blasts; b) prior to backing up - 3 short blasts; and c) emergency stop - 1 long blast. An alternative might be needed for night shooting in residential areas. 12. A copy of the guidelines should be posted on the glove compartment of the insert camera car. ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT Electrical and lighting equipment can be a major source of heat and sparks which can create a fire. In addition, the large amounts of power used on filming sites creates a severe risk of electrical shock if live wires are touched. This is particularly a problem with improperly maintained wiring, especially since the temporary nature of many film locations results in extensive use of flexible cords. The recent switch to alternating current (A/C) in many situations means many people may not be sufficiently familiar with its hazards. The need for large amounts of power also means that the source of power must be adequate. If no power is available or local power sources are not adequate or reliable, then alternate sources of power must be obtained. Examples of electrical and lighting hazards include proximity of hot lamps to combustibles and sprinkler heads, shorting of electrical wiring or equipment, inadequate wiring, deteriorated cables or equipment, fire and health hazards from carbon arcs, and inadequate grounding of equipment. The following are recommendations. For detailed information, see NABET 15 Electric Department Safety Manual (1984), and sections 520 and 530 of the National Electrical Code. Some of these recommendations are taken from electrical safety guidelines in Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Power and Distribution System 1. All electrical work and wiring should be done in accordance with requirements of the National Electrical Code by licensed electricians. Only members of the electrical crew should make electrical connections to distribution boxes. 2. One person on the crew should have responsibility for all electrical distribution. This individual should have a meter capable of reading the load on cables to ensure that balance is maintained. 3. Proper non-conducting attire should be worn at all times, including rubber-soled shoes, rubber gloves in condition of high humidity and tying-in, etc. 4. All cables, distribution boxes, etc. should use standard color coding: white - neutral; green - case or earth grounding; red, black and blue - live or hot wire; brown, yellow and orange - high voltage. 5. The electrical distribution system should have a separate ground that is not returned to neutral. 6. All electrical personnel should be aware of the load-bearing capacity of cables and boxes and not overload this capacity. 7. Flexible cords are approved by the National Electrical Code for film production because of its temporary nature. The cables, however, should be marked with gauge and/or ampacity, and should be adequate for the equipment. 8. Cables should be routed, taped down or covered to avoid people tripping over them. They should not be nailed, stapled, or tacked to wood or attached to metal pipes or other metal materials. Cables should not be in places where they can be damaged by vehicles or other equipment. 9. Cables should not be spliced; they should be connected to approved ter- minals or connectors. 10. Cables should be checked regularly for overheating, loose connections, fraying or other damage. 11. All portable generators, extensions, four-way boxes, breaker boxes, equipment, etc. should be properly grounded. Portable generators must be periodically checked. 12. When doing electrical work in or around water (rain, snow, bodies or water, wet or damp areas), observe the following: * Use safer direct current (DC) when possible. For AC, use one phase to limit voltage, and install ground fault circuit interrupters. * Wear proper clothing (rubber gloves, full water-proof suit and shoes). * Ground all instruments. * Keep connections and distribution systems dry and insulated from the ground. Tie-Ins Tie-ins to the power source (and un-ties at the end) must follow appropriate safety procedures due to the high amperages involved. Precautions include: 1. Two qualified electricians should be present. 2. Use proper equipment (ABC fire extinguisher, insulating gloves and shoes, safety goggles, insulating rubber mat, rubber for insulating between connectors, electric meter, flashlight, insulated screwdriver, gaffer tape, electrician's tape, etc.). 3. Check the type of current (AC or DC), the voltage, and amperage needs. 4. Isolate the phases from each other with nonconducting materials before tying in. 5. Use a separate ground that does not return to neutral when tying in. 6. Secure tie-in leads and clips adequately. 7. Provide fused, safety disconnect switches or boxes between power source and "on set" distribution. Lights 1. All lights and other powered equipment should be properly grounded. 2. Deteriorated or poorly maintained lighting equipment fixtures, sockets, fixture wiring, etc. should be replaced. 3. Fixtures should be turned off and disconnected from the power source before being worked on. 4. Equipment repaired on the set should be checked for continuity and polarity before reuse. 5. All lighting fixtures or stands should be properly supported to prevent tipping. Hung fixtures should have a safety chain. 6. Install ground fault circuit interrupters (for AC), when using powered equipment within 6 feet of the possibility of water splashing. 7. Open-faced equipment should have shielding to protect nearby personnel from flying glass in case of an exploding bulb. 8. High voltage gas discharge lamps - such as neons, HMIs, CSIs and fluorescents - should be properly grounded, inspected for lens cracks that could leak ultraviolet radiation, and otherwise handled with the care given high voltage equipment. Personnel using them should be aware of the ballasts used and ensure all micro safety devices are working. Only trained technicians should make repairs to these. They should be covered to protect from rain or high humidity, and ballasts grounded. Keep people away before striking the lamp. 9. All personnel on a set should be warned of the dangers of ultraviolet radiation from "arc" type lamps, and care taken to protect against skin and eye damage. 10. Carbon arcs give off sparks which can be a fire hazard and combustible materials should be removed from their area. In addition, eye protection is needed to prevent exposure to the intense ultraviolet radiation given off, and local exhaust ventilation is needed to vent toxic fumes and gases given off by carbon arcs. SCAFFOLDING AND RIGGING Scaffolding Scaffolding can be used for mounting of cameras, lighting and other equipment. Mobile scaffolds are also sometimes used. Standard precautions to be used with scaffolds were discussed in Chapter 4 in the section on Carpentry. The following are some specific recommendations related to the use of scaffolds in filming. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. 1. Rolling scaffolds (towers) must have proper cross and horizontal bracing and at least two of four casters or wheels must be swivel type with locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds unless there is complete control of the path, the path is smooth and level, there are no overhead obstructions (especially power lines) and the workers are given time to tie down or leave. 2. The Key Grip should determine the safe number of personnel and equipment working on a scaffold. 3. Cameras, lights and other equipment must be securely attached to the scaffold. 4. Hanging large surface areas of material such as back drapes, tarpaulins, etc. from a outside scaffold can be hazardous under certain conditions such as high winds or gusting winds due to danger of capsizing. Under such hazardous conditions, the Key Grip or other safety personnel may remove either personnel or materials from the scaffold. 5. See also Camera Crane section above for other relevant recommendations. Rigging On location and in many studios, lights are rigged to sets, scaffolding or are free standing. In many television studios, in particular, lights are hung from permanent overhead grids. The position of the lights is often adjusted by rigging systems. In addition rigging can be used to fly scenery or even people for special effects (e.g. "Superman" movies). I will not try to discuss the technical details of rigging here, but only procedures. For detailed information on rigging safety, see the Stage Rigging Handbook by Jay O. Glerum. 1. Operation, maintenance, and repair work on rigging equipment shall be done by properly trained and qualified persons. They should be knowledgeable in operation and functioning of the equipment, safe use, routine maintenance, operation of safety devices, possible dangers during proper and improper operation, and emergency procedures. 2. All rigging equipment shall be inspected before use, after alterations, and at regular intervals. 3. Be sure the load does not exceed the safe capacity of the system. 4. Follow safe procedures when loading, unloading, or operating rigging systems. Unbalanced counterweight systems should be kept on the ground, for example while loading and unloading. 5. Maintain visual contact with a moving piece at all times. 6. Warn people on the set, deck and grid before moving any rigged scenery or other object. Do not ever move set if people are underneath. 7. Maintain control of moving pieces at all times. 8. Only assigned personnel shall have access to suspended work areas such as grids and catwalks. 9. All hoisting systems should be secured to prevent accidental or unauthorized use. DRESSING, COSTUMES, AND MAKEUP Dressing Rooms Dressing rooms are used for dressing, application of makeup, resting, reviewing scripts, etc. Dressing rooms can be fixed rooms in permanent studios, or consist of multiple dressing room units (trailers) for temporary locations. 1. All dressing rooms should be heated or cooled to maintain comfortable ambient temperatures. 2. Dressing rooms, whether mobile or fixed, do not have adequate ventilation for use of volatile chemicals. Hair sprays or other aerosol sprays should not be used in these dressing rooms. Use pump sprays instead. (Occasional use of hair spray outdoors would be acceptable.) 3. Smoking should be prohibited in all dressing rooms occupied by more than one person. 4. See the Motor Vehicles section for information on the hazards of multiple dressing room units. Costumes Costumes can present sometimes hazards both to the actors wearing them and to the wardrobe attendant responsible for caring for them. In addition, the making of special costumes such as armor, masks, etc. can be hazardous. The use of plastics resins in making such materials was dis- cussed in the previous chapter under Props. Ordinary costumes do not present a hazard under normal conditions. For example, a regular costume for an actor who is working near an open fire or flame should be treated with an approved fire retardant and made of high wool or cotton content. Synthetic materials are not recommended due to their melting and flammability properties. For a stunt person in a fire scene, special protective gels and other precautions would be used on both clothing and hair (see Chapter 8). Heat and cold can be a problem if an actor has to wear a costume not suited to the climate for a particular scene. In those instances, work breaks and other protective measures might be needed. See later sections in this chapter on heat and cold. Special costumes involving metal or wood frameworks (e.g. for robot costumes) could both be heavy and hot for the person wearing them. In such instances, the materials should be as light as possible and any structural framework supported in such a way as to minimize discomfort and possible strains. The filming should be scheduled so as to minimize time spent wearing the costume. In some instances, there might have to be provision for supplying cool air to the actor inside the costume. In addition, the costume has to be designed for easy escape in case of fire or entanglement. Caring for Costumes It is important to ensure that costumes are kept clean in order to prevent mildew formation and unsanitary conditions. A wide variety of hazardous solvents, aerosol sprays, dyes, cleaning solutions, etc. are used in caring for costumes. These are commonly being used without adequate ventilation and have created health problems in the wardrobe attendants whose job it is to care for costumes. 1. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on all cleaning and other products. 2. Whenever possible, replace the hazardous chlorinated solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene and methylene chloride with safer solvents such as mineral spirits. 3. Avoid aerosol spraying whenever possible. Use pump products rather than aerosol spray cans. 4. Use water-based dyes rather than alcohol-based ones. If alcohol-based dyes are essential, use denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol rather than the more toxic methyl alcohol. 5. Use pre-mixed liquid dyes rather than powdered dyes. If powdered dyes are essential, mix the dyes inside a glove box made by shellacking the inside of a cardboard box (for ease of cleaning), place a glass or plex- iglass top on it, and cut two holes in the sides for arms. 6. In fixed locations, proper ventilation such as slot exhaust hoods and spray booths should be used when working with solvents or spraying. On temporary locations, I recommend using portable explosion-proof blowers/exhausters which can be set up next to the work location and ex- haust the solvent vapors to the outside through flexible ducting. 7. In instances where adequate ventilation is not present, NIOSH-approved respirators with organic vapor cartridges (and spray prefilters if spraying) may be necessary. 8. See the Solvents and Thinners section in Chapter 4. Makeup The use of theatrical makeup - face powders, rouge, cream makeups, lipsticks, mascara, hair sprays,etc. - by actors and actresses for motion picture filming is universal. However, both the process of application and the chemical ingredients in cosmetics can be hazardous. A classic example of makeup hazards occurred during the filming of the "Wizard of Oz". The original Tin Man, Buddy Ebsen, had to quit the film because he was hospi- talized with a severe allergic reaction to the aluminum paint used as makeup. This section will discuss the hazards of standard makeup used by actors. The Special Effects Makeup section in Chapter 7 will discuss the use of prosthetic devices. A wide variety of solvents, dyes and pigments, preservatives, oils, waxes, etc. can be found in various types of makeup. Many of these ingredients can cause skin irritation or allergies; certain ingredients, for example some solvents, can be absorbed through the skin. Many hair dyes are known or probable human carcinogens. With powders and aerosol spray products such as hair spray, inhalation is also a hazard. The most common type of reaction to makeup is cosmetic acne, a mild, intermittent, inflammatory reaction involving small pimples which mostly affects women in their twenties through their fifties. Animal studies have implicated a number of known acnegenic ingredients in cosmetics, including many oils, cocoa butter, oleic acid, and butyl stearate. Infections can also result. Solvents such as acetone can cause defatting of the skin, resulting in dry, cracked skin. Other chemicals that are acidic, basic, or strong oxidizers can also cause skin irritation or irritant dermatitis. Examples are sodium and potassium hydroxide used in cuticle softeners and hair relaxers, and peroxide used to lighten facial hair. Many cosmetic ingredients - called sensitizers - can cause skin allergies. Preservatives, chrome and nickel compounds found in some eye cosmetics, and acrylates and formaldehyde found in artificial nail prod- ucts, are examples of chemicals that are common sensitizers. The eyes are even more sensitive than the skin. Conjunctivitis (irritation of the membranes covering the eyeball and eyelids) is a common reaction to eye contact with many chemicals found in cosmetics. Scratching of the cornea during application of eye makeup is a common problem, especially from application of mascara. These abrasions can also become infected. Inhalation of solvents from hair sprays and other spray products is also hazardous. Methylene chloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane, for example, which are found in many aerosol spray products, can cause heart arrhythmias. Methylene chloride can also cause other heart problems, and is a probable human carcinogen. In one instance, a wardrobe attendant in the Broadway play "Sugar Babies" suffered a heart attack after using amethylene chloride-containing spray shoe dye on a bear costume. Inhalation of dust from face powders, rouges, etc., has not been shown to cause serious problems, although there have been reports of temporary irritation and allergic reactions to some powdered ingredients. The following are recommended precautions: 1. Only purchase makeup and other cosmetics that have the ingredients listed on the label. 2. Do not use old makeup. Replace makeup on a regular basis. 3. Wash hands before and after applying makeup. 4. Do not smoke, drink or eat when applying makeup. 5. Avoid creating airborne dust when applying face powders or talcum powders. 6. Avoid aerosol sprays whenever possible; use pump sprays instead. 7. Moisten brushes or pencils with clean tap water, not saliva. 8. Seek medical advice whenever eye injuries have occurred. 9. If you have a persistent skin reaction, see a dermatologist. Stop using the makeup until healing is complete. 10. If you have an allergic reaction to particular types of makeup, try to identify which ingredients are in common and might be the cause of the reaction. 11. If you have problems, try using "hypoallergenic" makeup and unscented makeup. 12. Whenever possible, use isopropyl myristate to remove makeup instead of other, more toxic solvents. 13. Use emollients or moisturizers to counter the drying effects of materials used to remove spirit gum and similar products. 14. Derma Guard is a trade name barrier cream that protects the skin from many agents and can be used under makeup. Shared Makeup "Never lend or accept makeup from anyone." This general rule is one often violated in film and theater work. Sharing makeup is common, and often one makeup artist works on 10, 50 or 100 people daily. One problem with shared makeup is the fact that some types of cosmetics can be vehicles for biological transmission of disease. Bacterial infections, such as staphylococcus, impetigo, and streptococcus can be passed from one individual to another. However, most current concern and questions surround the possibility of transmission of viral infections, such as AIDS, herpes simplex, and hepatitis B. Presently, little research exists specifically questioning the possible transmission of these viruses via common application of makeup. At this time, the medical profession stresses that it is unlikely that a virus will be passed through this type of contact. In particular, transmission of AIDS, which is passed through sexual or blood contact, is not probable. (Moreover, an individual who is HIV positive or suffering from AIDS is not likely to catch opportunistic infections from other people via shared makeup since the infectious agents responsible for these types of diseases already exist in most people. It is the compromised immune system of the AIDS patient that allows these ailments to develop unchecked.) It is important to prevent panic about disease transmission while also providing the safest possible environment for makeup application. According to theatrical makeup manufacturers, preservatives used in makeups do not protect against transmission of infection. These additives only in- crease the shelf-life of the product, and once opened, the makeup can become contaminated. Individual makeup is the key to good hygiene. The following is a list of suggestions and guidelines to help prevent infections from contaminated makeup: 1. Creme sticks: Slice these out with dental spatulas on to individual papers such as butter trays. Label and reuse them individually for touch-ups. 2. Lipsticks: These too can be sliced and labeled. For a long running show, individual lipsticks should be provided. 3. Pancakes and Powders: Powdered products provide a less viable environment for infection, but try to individualize usage. Supply powders in the smallest containers available. 4. Mascara: Use individual applicators/containers. 5. Eyeliners and Eye makeup: Use individual products. 6. Brushes: Use disposable brushes. 7. Sponges: Use disposable sponges whenever possible. Reusable ones can be disinfected. Give out individual sponges at the beginning of a show, and maintain separate use. 8. General Hygiene: Makeup artists should wash hands between clients, for protection of both the makeup artist and the performer. Likewise, cleaned containers with fresh water should be used for applying each performer's makeup. 9. Miscellaneous: Any type of facial hair, skullcaps, sequins, combs, hairbrushes, or other face product should be disinfected before use by a new performer. These types of products should be carefully stored in labeled individual plastic bags between performances. Use an approved bactericide for disinfection. Always use the smallest containers possible. If these are not "personal size," you can subdivide makeup from the larger containers. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS Heat Stress Long hours of filming in a desert or even outdoors on a very hot day can expose actors and crew to excessive heat, which is often uncomfortable, and sometimes dangerous. In 1988, filming was done on location in Cobo San Lucas, a desert town in Mexico, where the local temperature can reach as high as 120 F. As a result of the heat, a cameraman passed out on the side of a cliff. Fortunately, he was rescued from falling to his death. Heat stress, at a minimum, can decrease concentration - costing money from increased production time and wasting effort - and can cause injuries that range from minor (heat rash) to fatal (heat stroke). The human body is comfortable at about 75 F, with 45% relative humidity. Comfort is determined by the amount of activity, the relative humidity, and the amount of air movement - all variables that affect the rate at which the body loses heat. The level of activity (work load), age, weight, disease status, alcohol intake, taking of medications, water and salt balance, and physical fitness all play a role in the human body's response to heat stress. Persons exposed regularly to a hot environment develop adjustments that enable maintenance of a normal internal temperature. This process - called acclimatization - can take place in about 5-7 days, and occurs more readily in younger people. Gradual exposure to heat allows the human body time to become accustomed to higher environmental temperatures. When an individual is removed from the hot environment for even one week, up to two-thirds of the acclimatization may occur. Total loss of the effect is seen after a three-week absence from exposure. There are several types of heat-related illnesses. It is important to remember that sometimes more than one of the heat illnesses may be present concurrently. 1. Heat Stroke: This is the most severe heat ailment, and is characterized by a sharp rise in body temperature resulting from the failure of the sweating mechanism, or from too high a temperature. A person suffering from heat stroke can appear confused, angry, deluded and may suffer convulsions. The skin is at first hot, dry and red, later turning gray in color. There is a 20% mortality in treated cases, with potential brain damage. Untreated cases are fatal. The victim should be taken immediately to a hospital. 2. Heat Exhaustion: This reaction occurs in healthy persons exposed to a hot environment to which they are unaccustomed, unacclimatized, or if they have lost their acclimatization from being away from the heat. Inefficient sweating and inadequate fluid replacement can lead to a loss of necessary fluids and salt. Heat exhaustion due to salt-depletion is the more common form. The victim will become irritable, confused, nauseous, dizzy and weak and may experience muscular fatigue. Skin will appear moist and clammy, along with low blood pressure and a weak, slow pulse. In contrast with heat stroke, the body temperature is near normal. Removal to a cool environment, plus replacement of body fluids will result in recovery in mild cases. Severely ill individuals should be hospitalized. 3. Heat Cramps: When a person suffering from heat exhaustion tries to quickly replace lost body fluids, cramping may occur. This heat reaction includes painful spasms of the bone muscles due to liquid intake unaccompanied by adequate salt replacement. Removal from the hot environment and replacement of salt can reverse this condition. 4. Heat Fainting or Syncope: People unaccustomed to extremely hot temperatures, especially if unacclimatized, can experience lightheadedness, flushed sensation and fainting. This condition occurs when blood vessels all over the body are dilated, resulting in a lack of blood volume, especially to the brain. Recovery is rapid when the individual rests lying down in a cool environment. Liquids should be given orally. 5. Heat Rash (prickly heat): Sometimes clogging or inflammation of sweat glands or ducts leads to the developing of a rash resulting from a lack of sweat evaporation. Individuals who have poorly functioning sweat glands, as shown by the development of prickly heat, are at greater risk for heat stroke than others. Heat Precautions Every person working on a production must be considered including technical crew, extras, production crew, actors, and director. One very important variable in determining heat stress potential is the activity level of an individual. An actor with a very physically active part or the person holding the lights for ten straight hours all have heavy workloads that increase the possibility of heat stress. 1. Qualified medical professionals trained in recognizing the symptoms of heat stress and providing emergency medical treatment for affected individuals should be on location at all times at productions that have high activity levels accompanied by hot temperatures. (See Chapter 9.) 2. Allowing time for acclimatization is appropriate if an individual is going to work on a project for an extended period of time, (since the period of acclimatization itself can take about 5-7 days). The first week of rehearsal, filming, or production in a hot environment should provide all workers with a gradually increasing schedule allowing acclimatization to occur. 3. Rest breaks should be integrated into the rehearsal, performance, and filming schedule. Work-rest cycles allow the body an opportunity to get rid of excess heat, slow down the production of internal heat, and provide greater blood flow to the skin. Shorter but frequent rest cycles are the best for those working in hot environments. Ideally, the workload should be distributed evenly over the course of the day. 4. In very hot situations, there should be cool rest areas provided for all individuals working on the project, not just principals. These cool areas could be separate air-conditioned trailers, tents, studios or rooms. While it is not known conclusively what the ideal temperature of the rest area should be, a rest area temperature of 76 F appears to be comfortable, but not chilly, to those working in a hot environment. This may necessitate separate power generators. 5. Non-carbonated beverages and water should be readily available for replenishment of fluid and salt. People often don't replace the 2 to 3 gallons of liquid they sweat daily, so one shouldn't rely on "thirst" to signal fluid intake. Persons working in a hot environment should drink 5-7 ounces of fluids every 15 or 20 minutes. In particularly hot environments, liquids with salt or other special additives (e.g. Gatorade or other similar brands), should be available. The use of salt tablets is not recommended. The drinking of salted beverages, of course, should be controlled for individuals with medical conditions requiring a low-sodium diet. 6. Appropriate administrative controls should be used whenever possible. For example, rehearsals should be scheduled in comfortable locations even if the actual performance has to occur at a hot site. Scheduling should allow for rest or break time during the hottest part of the day (11-2 PM). In the event of extreme heat situations, like a sudden heat wave, or failure of an air conditioning system, effort should be made to postpone all nonessential tasks, allow only those who are acclimatized to hot temperatures to work, and utilize extra workers to allow more rest time for all. 7. There should be adequate comfort ventilation for indoor locations such as theaters, studios, etc. where possible. Air-conditioning provides comfort from hot environments. It is important to remember that ventilation for climate control is separate from ventilation of contaminants. Fans will provide some comfort by creating air movement which can assist in evaporation of sweat and conduction of heat. 8. Certain types of protective clothing may alleviate heat stress to individuals for whom clothing doesn't interfere with production or performance. Loose fitting, natural fiber, light-colored clothing will help. Outdoors in the sun, head covering becomes essential. In extremely hot environments, members of the crew can wear special clothing that is reflective, air-cooled, or insulated with ice. 9. Recognition of individuals with special medical problems is necessary. For example, people with heart or kidney problems, who are overweight, or are not physically fit are more susceptible to heat stress hazards. 10. Protection from sunburn, which is common in hot outdoor environments, is important. This involves the use of protective lotions and barrier creams for all people exposed to excess solar radiation. Actors can have sunscreens incorporated into their makeup. 11. Extended stays in very hot environments might require heat stress measurements by an industrial hygienist. Individuals who are exposed to high temperatures should not have a deep body temperature in excess of 38 C (100 F). Cold Stress Too low a temperature is also hazardous. This situation can occur while filming in the winter, in the arctic, or from immersion in cold water for even short periods. Even filming such a seemingly innocuous scene as a walk through a cool mountain brook could be a hazard. Wind increases the rate of heat loss from the body. Wet clothing, contact with cold metals, heart disease, alcohol, unconsciousness, exhaustion, hunger, old age or very young age can exacerbate the effects of cold. The body only has a limited capacity to handle cold and does not acclimatize to cold in the same way it does to heat. The following are some of the common health effects of cold exposure: 1. Frostbite: One common reaction to cold is frostbite, where actual tissue damage occurs, especially to the hands, feet and face. In severe cases frostbite is irreversible, and amputation is sometimes necessary to prevent gangrene. In milder cases, healing can occur although there are often long-term effects such as numbness, pain, etc., especially in cold weather. 2. Trench Foot: Immersion or trench foot is caused by cold damp, especially when the feet get wet for extended periods. Symptoms include pale, numb, clammy and swollen feet. There is damage to the blood vessels and long-term cold sensitivity can result. 3. Hypothermia: The most serious type of cold injury is hypothermia, which involves serious lowering of the body temperature. This can be fatal as shown by examples of death occurring in people lost in snowstorms or immersed in the North Atlantic Ocean after a shipwreck. Symptoms include lethargy, mental confusion, hallucinations, partial or total loss of consciousness, slowed breathing and heartbeat. Hypothermia is a major medical emergency and can be fatal. Cold Precautions 1. Qualified medical professionals trained in recognizing the symptoms of cold injury and providing emergency medical treatment for affected individuals should be on location at all times at productions that involve working in cold temperatures. (See Chapter 9.) 2. In cold weather, wear warm, multilayered natural fiber clothing with good hand, feet and head protection. Do not wear constricting wrist cuffs or tight socks and shoes. In very cold weather, especially if there is a wind, face protection is also needed. 3. Have a warm, protected tent or other structure in which people working in the cold can take work breaks. Warm drinks and food should be available. 4. Minimize the time spent in cool or cold water. For retakes, allow sufficient time for rewarming. This should be monitored by medical personnel. 5. Have emergency procedures for quick rescue if there is a risk of someone falling into cold water. (See next section.) 6. In cases of suspected frostbite or other cold injury (except hypothermia), there should be slow rewarming. For mild exposures, use unaffected hands or warm object. For frostbite use a warm bath (maximum temperature 100 F) and warm liquids to drink. Do not exceed 100 F because the affected parts can have no feeling. If the feet are frozen, do not warm or thaw them if the person has to walk any considerable distance. 7. For hypothermia, immediate hospitalization or emergency medical treatment is crucial. If medical help is not immediately available, rewarming at the scene can start with immersing the person's hands and forearms in water at a temperature of 113-118 F (check with a thermometer). The water should be bearably hot to the rescuer's elbow. If conscious, give hot drinks. Water Hazards A general discussion of choosing a water location is found in Chapter 3. Filming in or around water is definitely more hazardous than filming on land. The following are some recommendations to minimize water hazards. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use water sequences. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. A contaminated body of water should never be used for filming if personnel could come in contact with the water, unless they are outfitted in full drysuits. (See the Water section of Chapter 3.) 3. Care shall be taken to ensure that the water does not become contaminated by gasoline, oils, paints, etc. 4. Potentially hazardous foreign objects should be removed or identified and marked. If they are needed for filming, the markings can be removed for that scene. 5. If boats are used, all boating regulations shall be followed, including any others that are specified by local authorities. 6. All personnel working in or around water should be able to swim and/or required to wear appropriate water safety equipment. 7. Immersion in cold water can cause hypothermia, which sometimes is fatal. (See the Cold Stress section above.) This particularly can be a problem in colder seasons or at high elevations. "Wet" or "dry" suits may be required for personnel who are working in the water. Safety notices concerning the treatment of hypothermia should be attached to the call sheet. 8. When working in fast moving waters, safety equipment, including ropes and nets, and rescue personnel shall be located downstream. 9. Washing facilities should be available for persons immersed in water. Their use should be mandatory. 10. Only direct current (DC) power should be used in or near water, unless each alternating current (AC) source is separately grounded with a ground fault circuit interrupter between the power source and the piece of electrical equipment. Only single phase current should be used. (See also the Electrical and Lighting Equipment section of this chapter.) FILM FIRE/LIFE SAFETY INSPECTION CHECKLIST This checklist is reprinted from the Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook, published by the Office of the California State Fire Marshal. YES NO I. Access A. Fire lanes kept clear (20 feet wide) __ __ B. Hydrants not blocked __ __ C. Fire department connections clear __ __ D. Standpipe connections clear __ __ II. Parking A. Special effects trucks parked in designated location __ __ B. Refueler vehicles parked in designated locations __ __ C. All vehicles parked minimum 20 feet from tents __ __ D. Catering trucks parked in designated locations __ __ E. Generator truck parked in designated location __ __ F. Water tenders parked in designated locations __ __ G. Dry vegetation cleared from designated parking areas __ __ III. Exiting A. All designated exits kept clear __ __ B. Exits visible __ __ C. No flammable liquids, LPG or pyrotechnics near an exit __ __ IV. Pyrotechnic Special Effects A. Proper license in possession of pyrotechnician __ __ B. Permit on site __ __ C. Fire department briefed on proposed activity __ __ D. Alternative means of protection provided __ __ E. Special effects in Class II magazine or Dept. of Transportation carton __ __ F. Fire extinguishment provided by pyrotechnician __ __ G. Extinguishment equipment charged and in good working order __ __ V. Flammable Liquids and Gases A. Proper storage in approved containers __ __ B. Pressure vessels identified as to contents __ __ C. Pressure vessels secured __ __ D. Approved hoses and valves for pressurized gases __ __ E. Flammable liquids and gases kept away from heat sources __ __ F. No refueling of equipment while in operation __ __ G. Refueling done in remote area __ __ H. Aircraft refueled in designated site on location __ __ I. Supply and receiving vessels bonded together __ __ J. No leakage of fuels from generators __ __ K. Spray painting and lacquer application performed safely __ __ L. Proper ventilation to prevent flammable vapors from accumulating __ __ VI. Electrical and Lighting A. Cords and connections in good condition (no deterioration) __ __ B. Extension cords not used as substitute for permanent wiring of building __ __ C. A/C properly grounded __ __ D. Generators attended and in good repair __ __ E. Generators grounded __ __ F. Cables properly protected, bundled, and kept as clear as possible at exits __ __ G. Combustible materials kept clear of light fixtures __ __ VII. Welding, Cutting and Grinding A. Combustible materials within 10 feet of welding relocated or covered __ __ B. Flammable liquids removed from area where grinding sparks are produced __ __ C. Fire extinguishers provided on welding set __ __ VIII. Smoking A. Smoking prohibited near pyrotechnic special effects storage, or flammable liquids storage and dispensing area __ __ B. Designated smoking areas, if any, clearly marked __ __ C. NO SMOKING signs prominently visible where smoking is prohibited __ __ IX. Miscellaneous A. Film permit on site __ __ B. All sprinkler and standpipe systems fully operational __ __ C. Extinguishers present and ready for use __ __ D. Methods of reporting an emergency available __ __ E. Catering trucks provided with fire extinguishers __ __ F. Light combustibles in carpenter shop and other work areas removed frequently __ __ G. Tent materials flame retardant __ __ H. Fabrics, draperies, etc. flame retardant __ __ I. Brush cleared adequately at outdoor filming locations __ __ J. Open burning in compliance with all regulations __ __ K. Helistop clearly delineated and adequately cleared __ __ L. Bleachers and grandstands constructed to withstand loads imposed __ __ M. Greens (trees, bushes, etc.), if not fresh or live, flame retardant __ __ X. Required Permits and/or Certificates A. Film permit __ __ B. Special effects (pyrotechnic or non-pyrotechnic) __ __ C. Refueler vehicle __ __ D. Welding and/or cutting __ __ E. Tent __ __ F. Flame retardant __ __ REFERENCES Babin, A. (1989). Heat Stress. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. Babin, A., and Giacalone, K. (1988). Shared Makeup Hazards. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. California State Fire Marshall Film Advisory Committee. (1988). Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. California State Fire Marshall, Sacramento. Glerum, J.O. (1987). Stage Rigging Handbook. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians Local 15. (1984). Electric Department Safety Manual. NABET 15, New York. National Fire Protection Association. (1981). Fire Protection Handbook, 15th ed. NFPA, Quincy, MA. National Fire Protection Association. (1987). NFPA 70 National Electrical Code. NFPA, Quincy. National Fire Protection Association. (1985). NFPA 101 Life Safety Code. NFPA, Quincy. National Fire Protection Association. (1962). NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations. NFPA, Quincy. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1986). Working in Hot Environments. U.S Department of Health and Human Services DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-112. NIOSH, Cincinnati. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For Construction, 29 CFR Part 1926. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Rossol, M. (1986). Stage Fright: Health and Safety in the Theater. Allsworth Press, New York. Schwartz, G.K., et al. (1986). Principles and Practice of Emergency Medicine. W.B Saunders Co., Philadelphia.