CHAPTER 6. PROCEDURES FOR HIGH RISK SITUATIONS High risk activities such as stunts, special effects explosions, hazardous camera locations, and similar situations require special procedures to prevent injuries. The two crucial steps in planning a hazardous scene are preplanning and establishing safe procedures for filming. PREPLANNING There are two stages involved in the preplanning: 1) reviewing the script for potentially hazardous scenes; and 2) choosing the safest way to accomplish the scene. Identification of Potentially Hazardous Scenes The script should be reviewed by a qualified consultant or safety director who is experienced in evaluating the many types of hazards found in motion picture production. This expert should identify potentially hazardous scenes. Types of potential problems include hazardous locations, fires and explosions, fogs, smoke and other hazardous special effects, car and helicopter scenes, water stunts, falls, animals and reptiles, hazardous camera locations, etc. Ideally, the expert should be involved in the earliest production meetings, discussing ways of carrying out potentially hazardous scenes. Minimal input would involve the expert before selection of the location or other final decisions are made as to how a potentially hazardous scene will be filmed. Choosing the Safest Way The basic question should be asked, "Is there a safer alternative that does not unnecessarily limit creativity?" In recent years, for example, realism (as opposed to simulation) has been the cause of many unnecessary fatalities and injuries. In 1989, producer and director Toby Halicki was killed while filming a special effect for "Gone in 60 Seconds II" outside Buffalo. The effect involved the collapse of a 161-foot water tower. Unfortunately the water tower collapsed early, snapping a support cable and pulling over a telephone pole which fell on Mr. Halicki. The real question is why was this effect done at all? Experts have said that the effect could have been done as convincingly and cheaply using a small scale model. Similarly, many modern day helicopter scenes are filmed realistically, whereas in the past they would have been simulated using special effects without anyone detecting the method. And today, special effects are even more realistic. Other examples of stunts and special effects that could often be eliminated or modified include use of live am- munition and explosives, real swords and knives, live persons in car crash- es, extended scenes of underwater swimming or walking in the desert, etc. The advent of modern computer simulations can also eliminate the risks of many dangerous scenes. Many otherwise safe scenes involve filming from unusual angles or locations, for example from helicopters or cliffs, that put the camera crew at high risk. Simulation of some of these scenes or modification of camera angles could eliminate very hazardous situations. PLANNING SAFE PROCEDURES Planning how to do a scene safely involves answering several questions. What are the actual risks? Who is in charge? Who performs the scene? Is the camera crew at risk? What safety procedures are needed for the scene? What outside agencies should be involved? Once the safety procedures have been developed for a scene, they should be reviewed. The motion picture and television film industry should establish a Stunt and Special Effects Evaluation committee, composed of experts in the field, who would review the adequacy of the safety procedures for hazardous stunts or special effects. Risk Evaluation Once a particular scene is identified as potentially hazardous, then it is necessary to evaluate the risk. The degree of risk is going to depend on the characteristics of the specific hazard, who could be injured, and the nature of the potential injuries. Falling down a flight of stairs, for example, is inherently more dangerous than falling down on a level floor, and should be considered a stunt. Falling down stairs carries a high risk of severe injury and possibly even death, whereas simply falling on the floor carries a much lower risk of severe injury. Note however, that even a simple fall carries a risk of minor injuries such as sprained ankles, bruises, etc. In both these instances, the likelihood of other actors or crew being injured is minimal under normal circumstances. Consider, however, a high speed car chase in traffic. The drivers and passengers in the two cars involved in the actual chase are obviously at high risk of serious injury or even fatality in case of an accident. Motorists that are part of the background traffic are also at high risk because of the chance of misjudgments on the part of the chase cars or traffic cars, resulting in an accident involving the bystander traffic cars. The camera crew can also be at risk. In several accidents, camera crew members have been injured or killed when a stunt car crashed into them or when their camera car overturned. One example was the death of cameraman Bruce Ingram and the injury of seven others during the filming of "The Wraith" in 1986. This is just one instance of film crews or other non-participants being injured or killed during the filming of action sequences. Once the nature of the hazard, who is at risk and the seriousness of possible injuries are identified, then safety procedures can be developed to minimize these risks. Who Is In Charge One of the most critical aspects of planning and carrying out a hazardous scene is determining who is responsible for planning safety procedures for the scene and making sure they are carried out. As discussed in Chapter 2, there should be a safety director for the film. He or she would have ultimate responsibility for safety of all personnel on the set. However, there are many types of scenes that need special expertise. This can include stunt coordinators, special effects coordinators, fight directors, animal handlers, stunt pilots, certified underwater SCUBA divers, etc. These experts should have all applicable certifications in their area of expertise, and should be directly involved in developing the safety procedures for the scene. Once safety procedures have been established, they should be approved by an independent consultant or committee. On the set, the expert should have primary control over all safety procedures and be able to determine whether the scene proceeds or not. The safety director, producer, director, health and safety committee, or union delegates should also have the authority to stop a hazardous scene if they think it is too dangerous. And of course, any actor, camera operator, or other involved personnel must be able to refuse to participate if they think the scene is too dangerous to them, or if they are not sure of the proper safety procedures. They need not give a reason for refusing to participate. The scene should not be allowed to proceed until all safety questions have been resolved. A stunt coordinator, animal handler or other expert should not participate in the actual scene. It is impossible to properly supervise all aspects of a dangerous scene if that person is occupied with separate responsibilities in the scene, for example if the stunt coordinator is actually driving a stunt car. A different stunt performer should do the scene. Who Is Involved In the car chase scene described earlier, everyone in cars is po- tentially at risk. An important question is what qualifications are needed to participate in this scene? Obviously, experienced stunt performers should be driving all cars involved in the chase sequence, not just the stunt cars, since an error or panic on the part of a traffic car could be disastrous. Everyone else in the stunt cars should also be stunt performers because of the high risk of an accident. Passengers in other cars would not necessarily have to be stunt performers unless the stunt coordinator thinks the situation requires it. Experienced stunt performers should be performing all stunts where there is a high risk of injury. Extras and actors should never be asked to perform or participate in dangerous action sequences. In many less hazardous action sequences, actors can perform them with proper training. Stage fights, for example, require that actors be trained in stage combat by professional stage combat directors who actually choreograph the fight. Actors should be trained how to fall for simple action sequences such as running after someone and falling down. Actors using stage firearms must be trained in their safe use. Blank ammunition can be dangerous, as witness the death of actor Jon-Eric Hexum while doing the television series "Cover Up" in 1984. In this type of situation, it is crucial that the actors inform the director and others involved of their actual knowledge of safe procedures for the scene. The question of involvement includes the camera crew and other personnel at risk. If the camera operator is in a hazardous situation, for example, filming from the side of a cliff, then he or she should be trained in the use of appropriate safety equipment. Child Performers Using infants and children as performers in motion picture films is often unavoidable, but it is essential to ensure that the children are not exploited or exposed to unsafe conditions. Most states have child labor laws which are intended to protect child performers and models. In New York State, for example, according to Section 35 of the Arts and Cultural Law, a child under the age of 16 must be under the direction, control or supervision of the Department of Education, and a permit obtained specifying the details and time of the child's participation. This permit is obtained from the mayor or chief executive officer of the city where the filming will take place. Permits will not be issued for anything that would be harmful to the child's welfare, development or proper education, and the child can only perform what is described in the permit. The following are some concerns and requirements for child performers: 1. Infants and children are much more easily fatigued than adults. Late hours, frequent retakes, and excessive exertion are some examples of situations to be avoided or minimized. 2. There is growing concern about the effects of bright camera lighting on the eyes of children, particularly infants. At present, no standards exist but good practice would involve minimizing the amount of time children spend under bright lights. 3. Children are not permitted to perform hazardous stunts or be in the area where they are being performed. The New York State regulations, for example, state that it is "unlawful to employ a child ... In any practice that is dangerous to life or limb." This law does make provision for a Child Performer Permit for children riding a bicycle or horse. In these instances, the child is under the supervision of the State Department of Education. Of course, any child performing such an activity should have appropriate training, and they should not be permitted to participate in hazardous stunts. For example, the two Vietnamese children killed during the 1982 filming of "The Twilight Zone: A Movie" should never have been involved in scenes involving pyrotechnics. 4. Young children also should not participate in scenes which, in the opinion of a psychiatrist, would be psychologically traumatic. An example might be a young child witnessing graphic violence. 5. State laws also require that the production company hire teachers for children who are missing school. The SAG and AFTRA contracts specify requirements for number of school hours and working hours, and other relevant conditions. California also requires that teachers have training as welfare workers. Coordinating with Emergency Services When filming a dangerous scene, preparation has to be made for unforseen accidents which can risk life or property. In making these emergency preparations, various agencies can be involved, including police, fire department, hospitals, etc. In fact, their involvement might be mandatory through requirements for permits. Even if permits are not required, however, these agencies should be contacted during the planning stage for whatever assistance might be required. Fire Department The local Fire Department is responsible for enforcing fire safety on the set. If special hazards such as fire, explosions, smoke and fogs, etc. are planned, then special fire permits might be needed for those activities. There might be a requirement for a fire standby crew and apparatus during the filming. (See Chapter 10 for more information on per- mits, laws, etc.) At this planning stage, consideration should also be given to what emergency fire equipment might be needed. In a major city like New York City, the Fire Department would have adequate equipment. Sometimes, however, special problems have arisen concerning the ability of local authorities to provide on site emergency facilities. In some instances, local fire departments have expressed concern about placing fire fighting equipment on standby at the location of a fire or explosion special effect because it could impair the normal emergency response for the community. In small communities in particular, loss of fire fighting equipment in case of a disaster could deprive the community of essential services during the time it would take to replace lost equipment. In situations like this, the production company might have to provide its own emergency fire fighting and other emergency equipment and personnel. Thus it is crucial to coordinate emergency procedures with the fire department at the early planning stage. Police Department Police permits are usually required to film in city streets. This is usually so that the police can section off the area and conduct crowd and traffic control. However, if the scene is potentially dangerous, then the police should be informed at the planning stage so they can make provisions for helping in an emergency. Medical Services Emergency medical care in case of accidents is crucial and can involve coordinating with local hospitals and emergency transportation services. Information on available emergency services can be obtained from the American College of Emergency Physicians (see Appendix 4). This should be done at the planning stage and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. STANDARD PROCEDURES Obviously each type of hazardous scene will have its own detailed precautions, but there are some general guidelines that should apply to all such situations. 1. Before actors or extras are hired, they should be made aware that a hazardous scene will be performed with trained professionals and told what their role in the scene will be. This information should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. Children under the age of 16 should not be placed in hazardous situations. See the discussion of Child Performers earlier in this chapter. 3. The detailed safety procedures should be in writing and discussed well in advance of the filming of the scene with all participating personnel (including camera crew). This written report should include: * a detailed description of the stunt or other activity with safety procedures * date and approximate time of the scene * location of on-site medical facilities and backup emergency services * emergency procedures in case of accident * names of the Safety Director, and Health and Safety Committee members, and any involved experts 4. There should be adequate pre-production time for any hazardous scene. This could include adequate training and rehearsal for any actor carrying out a dangerous scene (e.g. a fight scene), or sufficient time to satisfactorily rig and test a flying scene. 5. Immediately before filming the scene, there should be a last-minute verbal briefing including the information found in #3 above. This should include a dry run rehearsal without actual execution of the stunt of special effect. Everyone involved should be clear as to their roles in the scene, and the scene should not proceed until all questions have been resolved. 6. If there is any substantial change in the procedures at any time, then another meeting must be held to confirm everyone's understanding and agreement to the change. 7. All nonessential personnel should be kept clear of the area where they would be at risk, or in the way, in case of an accident. This rule should be strictly enforced. The more people around, the greater the risk of someone wandering where they shouldn't, as well as the more people at risk in case of an accident. 8. Special procedures should be taken to protect the camera crew and others on the set. This can include shields, safety belts, respirators, etc. 9. During filming of the scene, it is essential that there be adequate communication between the Safety Director and any experts. This can include communications between the stunt coordinator and special effects coordinator, and between ground and air in helicopter or airplane scenes. Headphone type systems are preferred to hand-held communications systems for on-site communications. 10. An emergency communications system should be established to connect personnel on site with emergency services. A radio communications system is usually the best communications method. Portable telephones are a second choice. Reliance on telephone booths is not recommended for emergencies due to unreliability and busy signals. 11. There should be an absolute minimum number of repetitions of the scene to avoid tiring of stunt performers or other personnel. Fatigue and disorientation can lead to accidents. 12. All accidents must be reported and the cause investigated. Accidents related to stunts, special effects or other high risk scenes should be investigated by an independent industry/labor committee. In conclusion, if we want to decrease the high fatality and injury rate in motion picture production, then planning and carrying out dangerous activities will have to be formalized into standard procedures involving preplanning and the development of clear safety procedures. REFERENCES Actors Equity of Australia. (1983). Film Industry Recommended Safety Code. FTPAA, Actors Equity of Australia and AT&AEA (NSW Branch), Australia. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto.