CHAPTER 7. SPECIAL EFFECTS A wide variety of special effects are used in motion picture production to simulate real events that would otherwise be too dangerous, expensive or impractical to execute. The types of special effects include fogs, smoke, fire, pyrotechnics, firearms, snow, rain, wind, computer effects, electronics, miniatures, etc. Chapter 6 discussed general procedures for high risk activities such as special effects. In this chapter, I will discuss the hazards of special effects and suitable precautions. Since it would be impossible to cover all the possible types of special effects, I will discuss only the ones that have significant health or safety problems. The safety procedures on pyrotechnics, fire, and firearms in particular are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. PYROTECHNICS Pyrotechnics special effects are widely used in motion picture production to create all types of effects involving explosions, fires, light, smoke and sound concussions. The types of pyrotechnics materials used include flash powder, flash paper, gun cotton, black powder (gunpowder), smokeless powder, detonator explosives, and many more. They are used in bullet hits (squibs), blank cartridges, flash pots, fuses, mortars, smoke pots, sparkle pots, etc. The main problems of pyrotechnics include prematurely triggering the pyrotechnic effect, use of larger quantities or more dangerous materials than needed, causing a fire, lack of adequate fire extinguishing capabilities, and, of course, inadequately trained and experienced pyro- technics operators. As a result of these risks, all pyrotechnics special effects are regulated at the federal, state and local level. Regulations The federal Bureau of Alcohol, Taxation and Firearms regulates the storage and use of explosives, and the Department of Transportation classifies explosives and regulates their transportation. To buy, sell, or use pyrotechnics and other explosives in interstate commerce, pyrotechnicians must have a Federal explosives license. Similarly, most states require pyrotechnicians to have a state explosives license to operate. The quality of these state licenses varies greatly, with some states requiring only an application and no examination. California requires pyrotechnicians to be licensed by the State Fire Marshall's Office. A Class 1 pyrotechnics operator can use all types of fireworks and special effects pyrotechnics, whereas a Class 2 pyrotechnics operator is restricted in the types of pyrotechnics materials he or she can use. California also has several other more restricted licenses. Some municipalities also have licensing requirements. New York City has strict requirements and does not recognize state and federal licenses. New York City has two levels of certificates of fitness, as they are called: a Class A special effects license, which enables both indoor and outdoor pyrotechnic operation; and a Class B pyrotechnician's license, which allows only indoor pyrotechnics effects and is mostly used for stage pyrotechnics. A written test and four years of apprenticeship are required to get a Class A license in New York City. In addition to licensing of pyrotechnicians, fire permits are required from the local Fire Department for each intended pyrotechnics usage. The permit requirements vary widely, but several standards groups are trying to develop general standards. In 1989, the Western Fire Chiefs Association adopted a revised Article 78, "Special Effects in Motion Picture, Television, Theatrical and Group Entertainment Productions", of the Uniform Fire Prevention Code. As of 1990, the National Fire Protection Association was in the process of developing NFPA 1126 Code for the Use of Pyrotechnics in the Entertainment Industry. In general, fire permits for pyrotechnics require a detailed description of the type and amount of pyrotechnics to be used, a detailed description of the special effects event and safety precautions to be taken, a site inspection by the Fire Department, and proof of qualifi- cations of the pyrotechnician. Any changes in the plans must be approved by the Fire Department. Some states, for example California, closely regulate explosives and pyrotechnics. The intended use and amount of the material often determines whether it is regulated as an explosive or pyrotechnic device. Many states or local authorities will also require certificates of insurance showing that the production company has adequate insurance in case a pyrotechnic special effect goes wrong. Types of Pyrotechnic Materials In general, all pyrotechnics are explosives, but not all explosives are pyrotechnics. Class A explosives (high explosives) are materials like dynamite and Primacord which may detonate even if unconfined. Pyrotechnic special effects materials are Class B explosives. They will burn, but not explode unless confined. Examples are black powder and pellet powder, safety fuses, igniters, igniter cord, fuse lighters, Class B special fireworks, and Class B composite solids propellants. Class C explosives are common fireworks. Note that short lengths of Primacord may be classified as Class C under certain conditions. Both Class B and C explo- sives are also called low explosives. All pyrotechnic materials and other explosives consist of an oxidizer (source of oxygen) and a reducer (fuel). Examples of oxidizers include potassium nitrate, strontium nitrate, potassium perchlorate and potassium chlorate. Examples of fuels include metals like magnesium and aluminum, sulfur, silicon dioxide, and organic fuels like charcoal, starch, resins, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. The choice of fuel and oxidizer determines the type of effect (flash, smoke, sound, etc.) its color, and its inten- sity. There are two basic types of pyrotechnic materials: single component and two component systems. Single component materials will either burn if ignited, or explode if ignited when enclosed, since the oxidizer and fuel are in the same mixture. Flash paper, for example, is a partially nitrated cellulose and contains both fuel and oxidizer internally. The traditional black powder has potassium nitrate as the oxidizer, and sulfur and charcoal as fuels. In two component or binary systems, the oxidizer and fuel are separate components which are transported and stored separately and only mixed when ready to use. These separate components should be prepackaged and labeled as A and B. A typical binary system could have strontium nitrate as the oxidizer component and magnesium and aluminum as the fuel. It is important to store oxidizers carefully since they can utilize many types of organic materials as fuels. Potassium chlorate, for example, is one of the best oxidizers, but is particularly dangerous because it is so reactive. Lycopodium is also used by pyrotechnicians for fire effects. It is not actually a pyrotechnics materials but a combustible material. Since it is a combustible, organic dust, it is explosive when enclosed. Transportation and Storage of Pyrotechnics 1. All transportation of pyrotechnics materials must be in accordance with the classification, labeling and packaging requirement of the Department of Transportation, and local and state regulations. 2. Storage of explosives and pyrotechnics materials should follow the recommendations of both Article 77 on Explosives, and Article 78 on Fireworks and Pyrotechnics Special Effects Materials, of the 1991 Uniform Fire Code. 3. Magazines: Explosives have to be stored in particular types of buildings or containers called magazines. The following are storage recommendations for various types of explosives. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Explosive Type Magazine Type High Explosives (Class A): 1, 2, 3 Class A detonators: 1, 2, 3 Detonating Cords: 1, 2, 3 Class C Detonators:* 1, 2, 3, 4 Low Explosives (Black powder, 1, 2, 3, 4 Class B composite solid propellants, Class B special fireworks, and Class C common fireworks) Safety fuse, electric squibs, 1, 2, 3, 4 igniters, and igniter cord**: Blasting Agents: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 * Includes electric detonators with leg wires 4 feet long or longer, or detonators with empty plastic tubing 12 feet long or longer that contains not more than 1 gram of explosives (excluding ignition and delay charges). ** Detonators are not to be stored in the same magazine with other explosive materials, except that Class C detonators and those described in the first footnote may be stored with safety fuse, electric squibs, igniters or igniter cord in Type 1, 2, 3, or 4 magazines. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. Indoor storage: Pyrotechnics materials (Class B explosives) and common fireworks stored indoors shall be located in a Type 2 or 4 magazine. Class A explosives stored indoors shall be located in a Class 2 magazine. A maximum of 50 pounds of explosives may be stored inside a building. 5. Outdoor storage: Either Type 2 or Type 4 magazines shall be used for low explosives. Type 2 magazines shall be used for high explosives. 6. Pyrotechnics materials sufficient for one day's work may be stored in a "daybox" or Type 3 portable magazine. This must have an attendant at all times. 7. Smoking, matches, open flames and spark-producing devices are not allowed inside a magazine, within 50 feet of an outdoor magazine, or within any room containing an indoor magazine. 8. Sparkproof tools shall be used to open or close containers of explosive materials. Housekeeping measures shall be taken to reduce the risk of fire. Use of Pyrotechnics 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use pyrotechnic materials. There should be a discussion of the type of pyrotechnic material to be used, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use pyrotechnics should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. Make sure that the pyrotechnic special effects operator has appropriate licenses. See the Regulations section. 3. Make sure that site permit is obtained and valid, and that appropriate insurance coverage is obtained. See the Regulations section. 4. The local Fire Department must be briefed on the proposed activity. 5. High explosives (Class A), for example, dynamite or TNT, should not be used if they are not essential for the desired effect. 6. The Special Effects Coordinator or other individual responsible for safety and the pyrotechnics operator shall remain on the set at all times as long as pyrotechnics materials are present. A security guard is also recommended. 7. The pyrotechnic material should be tested by the pyrotechnician, without spectators. During the event, all unnecessary personnel should be removed from the danger area. 8. Smoking shall not be permitted in the area where pyrotechnics materials are stored or handled, and "No Smoking" signs shall be prominently displayed. 9. All explosives and explosive devices must be shunted (short-circuited) to prevent accidental ignition. Detonation must be from a separate DC power source, and not radio-controlled. 10. When preparing pyrotechnics, all radio transmissions including mobile phones in the area must be turned off. 11. When pyrotechnic materials are used inside a building in the presence of other than employees, the quantity of smoke generated shall not interfere with visibility of exit signs or egress paths. There should be exhaust ventilation to rapidly remove the smoke (e.g. portable ventilators) since studies have shown that pyrotechnic smoke is alkaline and irritating to the eyes and respiratory system. 12. If there is a chance of setting the sprinklers off when set for auto- matic operation, then the sprinkler systems should be set to manual opera- tion, or baffled or screened off, in the immediate area where pyrotechnics materials are used. The fire department should approve any such modification. 13. There shall be at least one trained person on standby fire watch equipped with appropriate firefighting equipment. For major explosions, this could include a full-fledged firefighting crew and truck. The local Fire Department may have specific requirements. 14. No one shall be allowed back into the explosives area after the use of pyrotechnic materials until the Special Effects or Safety Coordinator signals approval. 15. Body squibs or bullet hits are considered a stunt in Ontario and are not permitted with children. No child under 16 should be close to explosives, except children who are qualified stunt performers, and who have signed permission from parent or guardian. FIRE Fire can be used in motion pictures for literally hundreds of scenes. This can include everyday uses of fire such as gas stoves, fireplaces, lit torches, kerosene lamps, bonfires, etc. as well as more destructive fires. The latter can range in scale from burning small items up to burning cars, houses, forests, etc. In many instances these fires are simulated without actually burning the whole structure. A wide variety of flammable and combustible materials have been used to create fire effects, including propane gas burners, rubber cement, gasoline, kerosene, etc. These are often used in combination with pyrotechnics special effects to give the illusion of a fire after an explosion. In stunts involving fire, a specially-equipped stunt performer is often coated with a flammable material and set on fire as he or she escape from a burning building or car. Hazards from the use of fire special effects include the involvement of inadequately trained and experienced special effects operators, the fire getting out of control, heat, poor maintenance of fire generating equipment (especially propane equipment), the use of excessive amounts of flammable materials, the presence of combustibles in the area which have not been removed or made fire resistant, and improper storage of combustible and flammable liquids and gases. Regulations Chapter 10 discusses fire prevention laws in general. Although not as strictly regulated as pyrotechnics, fire special effects still need fire permits, and in many areas the special effects operators must be licensed. In New York City, for example, you need a special fire permit to use fire effects (even a lit cigarette) on a motion picture set, and the special effects operator must have a Class B pyrotechnician's license from the New York City Fire Department for indoor fire effects, and a Class A special effects license for larger outdoor fire special effects. In general, fire special effects operators must have the same licenses as discussed in the previous pyrotechnics section. The fire permits also have similar requirements. In addition, most insurance companies have fire safety requirements. Recommendations 1. Whenever possible, use a special effect (such as flickering lights) that does not involve actual flames. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use open flames. There should be a discussion of the type of fire special effect, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use open flames should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. When using fire special effects, follow the recommendations for pyrotechnics special effects found in the previous sections. Most of these recommendations are applicable to fire special effects. 4. See Chapter 5 for general precautions on fire safety, especially related to flammable liquids and gases. The checklist at the end of Chapter 5 is particularly useful for evaluating your safety status. 5. All fire generating equipment should be properly maintained, and all gas lines meet applicable codes. Stationary open flame fixtures should be firmly secured. 6. Propane compressed gas cylinders used for indoor fire effects should be kept in a propane storage bunker while in use, and removed from the building afterwards. They are not to be left overnight. The maximum cylinder size should be 20 pounds. (See references) 7. Fires should be ignited with pre-lit Sterno, rather than with matches. 8. Each propane tank shut-off location should have an operator who has a clear view of all propane fires. 9. When using flammables and combustibles on a set as a fire accelerant, ventilation must be provided until ignition and cleanup have been completed. 10. Over the years, a variety of materials have been developed to make fire effects safer. For example, there are combustible gels and liquid fuels to replace much more hazardous rubber cement, gasoline and other flammable and extremely flammable substances. 11. All materials in the fire area should be noncombustible, removed, or flame-proofed. This includes costumes of actors in the vicinity of a flame (see Chapter 8). Appropriate fire retardant covers should be provided for cameras where necessary. 12. Stunt performers who could be directly exposed to flames should wear appropriate protective fire clothing or other protective means. See the Section on fire stunts in Chapter 8. 13. For any interior fire scene or exterior fire in an enclosed area, it is crucial to have exhaust ventilation to remove the smoke. Portable ventilators exhausted to the outside can accomplish this. Outdoors, blow- ers can be used to blow the smoke away from personnel, if needed. 14. Any fire special effects should have at least one safety person on standby fire watch equipped with appropriate firefighting equipment. For major fires (e.g. burning of a car or house) this could include a full-fledged firefighting crew and truck. If stunt performers are involved, see Chapter 8 for recommendations. FOG AND SMOKE During the 1980s, the use of fog and smoke to create atmosphere or special lighting effects greatly expanded. However the use of fogs and smokes to create special effects has a history dating back to the early days of film production. There are a wide variety of products and machines used to create smoke and fog effects, with varying degrees of hazard. This section only discusses nonexplosive materials that depend upon a change in physical state to create the effect, not a chemical reaction. Fog and smoke effects are created by generating a fine mist, a dispersion of very small particles, or an actual smoke by burning organic materials. All smokes and fogs are easily inhaled. Some chemicals used to generate the smoke or fog are toxic; however even chemicals that are not appreciably toxic can be irritating to the lungs. In particular, high risk groups such as people with asthma or other respiratory problems, children, or the elderly, and people having to do deep breathing (e.g a musician playing a wind instrument or a singer) might be more susceptible to inhalation of any material. It is often difficult to obtain information on many of these products, even from Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), because many manufacturers claim the compositions are trade secrets. Manufacturers of these products often make extravagant claims as to safety. For example, many products state that the chemicals used have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for ingestion. However, the fact that chemicals might be safe by ingestion does not mean they are necessarily safe by inhalation. Some manufacturers also claim that air sampling studies indicate that the concentration of their product in air is below the OSHA's Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). This is very misleading, however, since OSHA PELs and the Threshold Limit Values they are based upon are intended to apply to workers in industry and do not usually protect the general population, especially high risk groups as discussed above. Many manufacturers have done acute toxicity studies on their products. These animal studies only tell the effect of single exposures, and not repeated exposures. In addition, these studies would not pick up reversible, respiratory irritation which could be critical to an actor or singer. An additional problem is determining the length of exposure. The assumption is that these fogs are used only for short periods of time. However, in film production, a particular scene could be reshot many times, thus lengthening the period of exposure. In addition most productions do not have an efficient method for clearing out the fog between takes so that there can be an accumulation of the fog chemicals over a period of time. This can result in longer exposures not only for the actors, but also the film crew. In attempts to evaluate the safety of some of these fogs and smokes, unions and other groups have had these products analyzed. In addition, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and others have conducted air sampling studies in order to evaluate the safety of the products. Types of Smoke and Fogs The following discussion of the various types of smoke and fogs is based upon an accumulation of information from a variety of studies, and from actual experience in use. 1. Dry Ice: Dry ice is one of the earliest types of materials used to create fog effects. Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide, and when exposed to air it sublimes directly from a solid to a gas. The cold gas causes moisture to condense into a thick, low-lying fog. Dry ice is the safest way to generate fog except in enclosed spaces where the carbon dioxide can accumulate and reduce the oxygen concentration in the air. This could cause asphyxiation if the oxygen concentration falls below 19.5%. There would also be a hazard if someone was lying down in the dry ice fog. 2. Petroleum Distillates: Many of the earlier types of fogs were based on kerosene, fuel oil or other petroleum distillates. These were vaporized by heating to generate a fine mist. Unfortunately, inhalation of these chemi- cals caused eye and respiratory irritation, chemical pneumonia, and narcosis (dizziness, headaches, nausea, etc.). In addition, the mist of these petroleum distillates is a fire hazard. I definitely recommend against any fog product containing fuel oil or other petroleum distillates. 3. Zinc Chloride Smoke Generating Devices: A number of companies sell smoke generators based on zinc chloride (e.g. smoke cookies, smoke pots, smoke candles, smoke bombs). Some of these also contain chlorinated hydrocarbons such as perchloroethylene, a probable human carcinogen. The smoke is generated by heating or burning the product, which is classified as a Flammable Solid, D.O.S. by the Department of Transportation. These are available in sizes that generate small to very large amounts of smoke. The Material Safety Data Sheets on many of these products are not adequate and do not reflect their hazards. Use of these smoke devices in fire fighter training exercises has resulted over the years in complaints of breathing problems, chest pains, hot and cold flashes, headache, fever, fatigue, sore throat, nausea, cough and even some fatalities. Some of these symptoms might be due to chlorinated hydrocarbons, but most are due to the generation of high concentrations of hydrochloric acid from the reaction of the zinc chloride with water. In some studies, hydrochloric acid concentrations have been many times higher than OSHA PELs and even approach levels considered immediately dangerous to life or health. Even lower levels of smoke have caused symptoms. I recommend against the use of zinc chloride smoke devices, or devices based on titanium chloride and similar materials indoors or in outdoor situations where either film crew or actors could be exposed to any substantial amount of the smoke. 4. Ammonium Chloride: Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) is a common method of generating smoke on stage and outdoors. The smoke is created by heating the ammonium chloride. Air sampling studies have found large concentrations of ammonium chloride, in some instances near the OSHA PEL for nuisance dusts. Air sampling studies have also shown that some decomposition of the ammonium chloride to hydrogen chloride occurs during this heating. The hydrogen chloride dissolves in water in the respiratory system to produce hydrochloric acid, a respiratory irritant. The levels of hydrochloric acid are much smaller than those caused by the zinc chloride smoke devices, but are still high enough to cause concern. It is not recommended that ammonium chloride be used indoors or in enclosed spaces. 5. Mineral Oil: This includes oil crackers and diffusion foggers. Oil crackers involved bubbling air through a drum of mineral oil. The air bubbles reaching the surface contained "cracked" oil of particle size 1-50 microns. This oil is not "cracked" in the sense of chemically breaking down the oil, but is merely creating smaller droplet size. This has also been used in combination with dry ice. The diffusion fogger produces a mineral mist of less than 1 micron size by using a compressor to force mineral oil through fine filters. Air sampling studies by California OSHA in an enclosed sound stage 90' by 75' by 30' found that ten minutes of fogging produced mineral oil concentrations for almost 2 hours that were 50% to 90% of the OSHA 8-hour PEL for mineral oil. However this PEL for mineral oil is based on its use as a cutting oil in industry; no toxicological studies have been made on inhalation of mineral oil of particle size less than one micron. There is concern about long term health problems such as lipid pneumonia, since the very fine mineral oil mist gets deep into the lungs and stays there. This is not recommended for use indoors. 6. Vegetable Oils: Corn oil and similar vegetable oils are used in the same manner as mineral oil above. Although vegetable oils are suitable for eating, little information is available about effects of inhalation. Definitely, only food-grade oil should be used to ensure there is no contamination by molds like aflatoxin, which is carcinogenic. Use with caution. 7. Glycol Fogs: During the last decade, a whole range of products have been developed that use mixtures of water and polyfunctional alcohols, including ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol and glycerin. With some exceptions, these appear to be safer than most of the other fogs and smokes, except for dry ice. Ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol are toxic by ingestion, causing kidney damage and possible death; the other glycols mentioned are considered only slightly toxic. Ethylene glycol has been removed from most fogs after studies showed that it is a teratogen (can cause birth defects). Unfortunately long-term studies have not been done on inhalation of the mists of most of these glycols, although respiratory irritation is sometimes listed on Material Safety Data Sheets. A more serious concern is how the fog is generated. These mixtures are heated in a fog machine to a temperature near 600 F. One air sampling study found significant levels of acrolein in the mist generated, about 20% of the OSHA PEL. Acrolein is a strong respiratory and eye irritant. NIOSH is conducting studies on various fogs to determine the extent of this decomposition product. It is likely that some chemicals could generate more decomposition products than others. Reformulation and finding ways to reduce the temperature needed to create the mist are possible solutions. Despite these problems, at this time, the glycol fogs are probably the least hazardous fogs to use, although some will most likely turn out to be safer than others. 8. Burning Organic Materials: The burning of gums such as olibanum gum (frankincense), paper, and other materials can also generate smoke. These smokes are irritating and considerable amounts of carbon monoxide may also be generated. In addition to the smoke hazards, there is the concern about the open flames. These materials should not be burned inside or where people would be exposed to substantial amounts of smoke. Regulations Although not as hazardous as pyrotechnics or fire, smoke and fog on motion picture sets is regulated by many Fire Departments. In New York City, for example, you need a fire permit to use smoke or fog, just as you do for pyrotechnics. Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use smoke or fogs and the type to be used. Before the filming, there should be a discussion of the hazards and precautions being taken. This should be listed on the call sheet. (See Chapter 6 for more details on procedures.) 2. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on all smoke and fog products. In particular, note whether the Reactivity section lists any hazardous decomposition products. 3. The choice of product depends on whether it will be used indoors or outdoors, in enclosed spaces, and whether people will be exposed for any significant period. 4. Children, the elderly, and people with respiratory problems should be informed of their possible higher risks. A medical opinion should be obtained. 5. Use only chemicals recommended by the manufacturer of particular fog and smoke machines. Other materials may clog, or otherwise interfere with proper operation of the machine. Keep the fog machine in good repair and use as instructed. 6. Use the minimum concentration of smoke for the minimum period of time necessary. Avoid heavy concentrations when people are exposed. 7. Only allow essential personnel on the set when using smoke and fog effects. Also evacuate any nearby areas (e.g. dressing rooms, classrooms) where the smoke could travel. 8. On interior sets or in enclosed areas, the crew should wear respirators. Respirators should also be available for anyone wanting one in any situation. All respirators should be NIOSH-approved. The following table lists the types of respirators to use with different mists and fogs: ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Respirator Selection for Smoke and Fog dry ice - none needed; test oxygen concentration in enclosed spaces. zinc chloride - acid gas cartridge and dusts and mist filter; high concentrations need air-supplied respirators ammonium chloride - acid gas cartridge and dusts and mists filter mineral oil - dusts and mists filter glycol fogs - organic vapor cartridge and dusts and mists filter burning materials - dusts and mists filter for smoke; ventilation also needed to remove carbon monoxide ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9. On interior sets or in enclosed areas, rapidly exhaust the smoke vertically and laterally between takes. If this is not a permanent set, portable ventilators of the type used in manholes can be used (e.g. Coppus Engineering Corporation, Milbury, MA). Outdoors, large fans can be used to blow away the smoke. 10. Minimize the number of takes to further reduce exposure of personnel. 11. When burning organic materials, have a fire watch on hand. (See also the section on Fires.) FIREARMS Handguns, rifles, shotguns, and machine guns are all used in film production, sometimes even using live ammunition, although this is rare today. Obvious hazards of firearms include accidental shooting of someone, or a malfunction of the firearm causing it to explode. Unfortunately a lot of people think that blank ammunition is safe and take chances with it. There have been many accidents involving blank ammunition, one of the most infamous being the 1984 fatal shooting of Jon Eric-Hexum during the filming of the TV series "Cover-Up". He pointed the gun at his head and pulled the trigger, not realizing that blank ammunition can cause death. A normal blank cartridge is a metal case with a percussion primer which is filled with smokeless powder or other propellant and topped with a wax paper wad. When fired, the smokeless powder ignites and causes a flash of hot gases and report. The wad is ejected at high velocity unless the gun barrel is blocked. If too much powder is used, the danger increases. In recent years, the industry has developed safety blanks, which are a specially formulated, plastic insert with a primer and flash powder. There is no wad to be ejected; there is a flash and noise only. In addition, blank adapters have been developed for use with machine guns to give off a flash only. Blank-loaded guns are generally used in combination with bullet hits to simulate the actual bullet impact. A bullet hit or squib is a plastic-cased detonator which is imbedded in the object to be struck by the bullet and detonated at the same time as the gun. Technically, bullet hits are pyrotechnics materials and all the regulations and recommendations presented earlier apply to them. One of the major potential hazards with bullet hits occurs when the bullet hit is imbedded in a person's clothing. In this instance, protective shields have to be worn to ensure the person is not struck by fragments of the exploding casing. Children should never be equipped with bullet hits. In addition to the safety hazards of firearms, gunshots fired too close to people can cause hearing loss. This can also occur from blanks. Regulations As with pyrotechnics there are special federal, state and local regulations concerning firearms. A federal firearms license is needed to receive a gun in the mail from another state. With a federal firearms license, you can also rent a handgun. To rent a handgun in New York State, you must be a New York State resident, and notify authorities in writing. The gun has to be checked by Ballistics to show it is deactivated. For shotguns and rifles, the property master or armorer needs a theatrical license, and for machine guns a special machine gun license. To use a firearm in New York City, you need a permit from the Mayor's Office of Film, and you must notify the Police Department. Other states have different regulations. In California, for example, you need at least a Class 2 pyrotechnic operator license to use blank cartridges, although with a Class 3 license you can load blanks under the supervision of a Class 1 or 2 operator. In California, you do not need to deactivate a firearm for use in motion pictures and even live ammunition can be used, although we oppose this practice. Selection of Firearms and Ammunition 1. Live ammunition should never be used. 2. Only firearms that have been deactivated should be used. The firearm should be deactivated, modified or repaired only by qualified gunsmiths with the approval of the manufacturer. 3. Only use the particular type of ammunition designed for a specified firearm. 4. Do not modify factory-loaded blank ammunition. Use the lightest and safest loads of blank ammunition possible, preferably safety blanks. Do not use crimped blanks unless specifically required. 5. Manufacturer guidelines for weapons and ammunition should always be followed. 6. The property manager or armorer should have all needed licenses and permits for the types of firearms to be used, and should be knowledgeable about the applicable federal, state and local laws concerning transporta- tion, storage and use of firearms. 7. The property manager should be an expert in safe handling, loading, unloading, and safety features of the particular types of firearms to be used, or consult an expert who is knowledgeable. 8. The property master should know all the expiration dates, manufacturer warnings, and storage and handling procedures associated with the blank ammunition being used. Firearms on the Set 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use firearms. No one should be required to use a firearm. All performers using handguns must be given instruction in their proper and safe handling. This should be listed on the call sheet. More details on general safety procedures are found in Chapter 6. 2. Non-firing, facsimile guns should be used whenever possible. Even if firearms are to be used in a scene, rehearsal should be done with non-firing weapons. 3. The property master should have time to discuss the use of firearms in a scene and related safety requirements with the director and assistant directors. 4. The property master is responsible for instruction of performers in the safe use of guns. Firearms should never be given to someone without first determining that he or she is knowledgeable in their proper and safe use. 5. All ammunition and firearms - even private ones - should be turned over to the property master or other designated firearms expert when the weapons come on the set. Except when filming or for necessary rehearsals, all firearms should be locked up by the property master. 6. No smoking signs must be posted where powder or blank ammunition is stored. 7. All firearms should always be treated as if they were loaded. A loaded firearm should always have the safety on, if one is present. Guns should never be pointed at anyone, even when being fired during a scene. This is especially a problem with shotguns. Playing around with firearms should be forbidden. 8. The crew and other personnel on the set should be warned prior to firing of weapons. 9. Firearms should be loaded and unloaded only by the property master or other experienced person under the property master's supervision. Loading should occur just before filming. Guns should be unloaded at the end of a scene and locked up by the property master (even between takes). 10. A firearm should never be fired if the barrel is clogged with dirt or other foreign matter. The gun should never be put down in such a way as to clog the barrel or workings. 11. Jams and malfunctions should only be worked on by the property master or qualified assistant. If the cause of malfunction is unknown, the gun should be taken out of use until the property masters determines it is safe. 12. Shields consisting of at least 1/2-inch thick plexiglass should be used by camera personnel for point blank shots; there should also be protective shields for other off-camera people in close proximity to blanks fired from weapons. 13. Off-camera personnel should wear safety goggles and hearing protectors during scenes involving the discharge of firearms. If possible, the performers should also wear ear plugs. 14. Guns should be checked and cleaned before and after each use and inventoried after each day's use by the property master. LASERS A laser is a device that can produce or amplify light of a particular wavelength or range of wavelengths. Laser beams can cause eye damage, skin damage, and present other hazards depending on the type of laser. Lasers are classified into categories based on their hazards. Class 1 lasers are the lowest power lasers and do not emit hazardous levels of energy under normal operating conditions. Class IIa lasers are low power lasers which represent eye hazards only if viewed for more than 1000 seconds; Class II lasers are considered chronic hazards from any prolonged viewing. Class IIIa lasers, usually less than 5 milliwatts power, are chronic eye hazards and may be acute eye hazards by viewing through optical instruments or directly. Class IIIb lasers can extend in power up to 0.5 watts, and are both acute skin and eye hazards from direct radiation. Class IV lasers are lasers of power greater than 0.5 watts which are acute skin and eye hazards by both direct and scattered radiation. Regulations The use of lasers is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health (formerly the Bureau of Radiological Health) under Public Law 90-602, "The Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968." Lasers for use in entertainment, such as light shows where the public is present, are regulated as demonstration lasers. Under these regulations, reports on the laser and the light show have to be filed. These regulations only allow the use of Class I, IIa, II, and IIIa lasers. To use Class IIIb or Class IV lasers in a light show, a variance must be obtained. This variance spells out in detail exactly how the laser can be used. Lasers that are used on closed motion picture sets (no public allowed) are regulated by OSHA under the general duty clause, rather than by the FDA. OSHA usually uses the ANSI standard for laser safety (see references at the end of the chapter). Unfortunately, this standard is mostly aimed at industrial use of lasers. If an outside company is used to provide the laser light show effects for a motion picture, they would have to have a variance for a laser stronger greater than Class IIIa, and must use trained operators. Even though the FDA regulations are not mandatory for closed motion picture sets with no public, they do represent good practice and I recommend using them. In addition to federal regulations, there can be state and local regulations. At present, New York State is the only state that requires licensing of laser operators. Some other states like Texas require that lasers be operated by qualified personnel without defining the term "qualified". Many states and cities require licensing of lasers. Outdoor laser shows involving projection into open airspace, including testing, require prior approval of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Recommendations The following recommendations are based on the FDA recommendations for laser light shows and displays. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use lasers. There should be a discussion of the hazards and precautions being taken. This should be listed on the call sheet. 2. All lasers must be labeled with their classification and appropriate warnings. If the laser is more powerful than Class IIIa, obtain a copy of the variance if an outside laser consultant is used. Also check the certification of the laser and qualifications of the laser operator. 3. All lasers must have a protective housing which prevents exposure to more than Class I radiation levels, and safety interlocks so the laser cannot operate when the laser or protective housing is removed. Class IIIb or IV lasers must have a key-actuated master control. 4. There should be written procedures for setting up, alignment, and testing of lasers prior to use. 5. Only Class I lasers may be directly viewed (that is, the laser beam coming from the front). However, as a matter of good practice, no one should stare at a laser beam. Appropriate laser goggles should be worn as needed. 6. According to the FDA regulations, employees can be exposed to Class II and IIa laser radiation levels as long as any direct viewing is only by accident for very brief periods. However, for casual extras and actors who are not trained in the hazards of lasers, it is recommended that they be considered as audience and only be exposed to Class I radiation levels. Laser operators and other trained crew could be exposed to Class II levels. 7. Class IIIa, IIIb, and IV lasers should not contact any part of the human body. For unattended lasers, the radiation levels should not exceed Class II levels inside a region 6 meters above the floor, 2.5 meters below the floor, and 2.5 meters laterally from where a person could stand. If a laser operator is present, the vertical separation could be 3 meters. The laser beam can be less than 2.5 meters in lateral distance or below the floor if physical barriers prevent access to higher than Class II levels. The laser operator should have a clear view of all laser beams and people in the area, and have no other responsibilities. 8. Audience scanning involves the passing of direct or reflected laser beams of radiation exceeding Class I levels across the audience. This could be achieved directly or through the use of rotating mirrored balls, for example. The amount of audience exposure must be reduced to below Class I levels by scanning devices. The scanning device must have a scanning safeguard to rapidly shut off the laser if a malfunction of the scanner increases exposure to laser radiation above these levels. In some instances the rotating mirrored balls might also need scanning safeguards since if the mirror rotation slowed or stopped, there could be an increased exposure to laser radiation in certain locations. 9. Laser radiation levels scattered by fogs, smoke, mist or similar diffusing media should be at Class I levels where actors could be exposed. 10. All lasers should have emergency shut-offs in case of any malfunction. OTHER SPECIAL EFFECTS Breakaway Glass and Other Props A wide variety of materials are used to make breakaway props such as bottles, windows, chairs, and tables. These can include thin layers of certain plastics, sugar glass, chilled paraffin wax, scored thin plexiglas, soft balsa wood, plastic foams, etc. Some breakaway resins contain flammable solvents (see Solvents and Thinners section of Chapter 4). Nails and screws should never be used in the manufacture of breakaway objects; they should be lightly glued or fastened with materials like toothpicks. The crucial considerations are that the material break apart easily so that an actor is not injured if he or she is hit with the object or falls on it, and that it not shatter and send fragments flying that could injure someone. Chemicals The special effects literature contains many examples of chemicals that have been used to create special effects. Some of these are fairly innocuous, for example the use of solutions of ferric chloride and potassium thiocyanate, which produce fake blood when combined. Others are considered very hazardous, for example the mixture of carbon disulfide with yellow phosphorus to create a self-igniting mixture. The latter two chemicals are both fire and health hazards, and should not be used. In many instances old mixtures found in the literature were abandoned because of their hazards. Before using any chemicals for special effects (or other purposes), Material Safety Data Sheets should be obtained on the chemicals to ascertain the hazards of the chemicals. But you can't stop there. You also have to find out the hazards of combining the chemicals, possible effects of heat or other conditions, and proper disposal of left-over chemicals. In many instances, for example the yellow phosphorus/carbon disulfide mixture, the chemicals are too hazardous to safely use and substitutes should be sought. Dust Dust and sand are used for a wide variety of scenes, including anything from desert or beach scenes to dust storms. If materials are used to simulate sand, then it is crucial to ensure that the substitute is safe. For example, vermiculite, which can contain up to 5% asbestos depending on the source, has been commonly used as a sand substitute. Even with dusts that are not toxic, inhalation should be avoided to the extent possible because any dust getting into the lungs can cause generalized irritation, and asthmatics or people with respiratory problems can be more susceptible. Repeated reuse of sand by sweeping off the floor can result in contami- nation of the sand with other materials. Organic dusts used in enclosed spaces (e.g. flour, fine sawdust) can explode in the presence of a spark or other source of ignition. Flying Flying involves the use of rigging to move objects through the air to give the illusion of flying. This can involve an object or person. The recent "Superman" films are a classic example. The performer must be properly equipped with a harness connected by wires to the rigging system. The harness has to be secure and still give the proper illusion. If only one cable is used, it must be at least 1/8 inch in diameter, and made of stainless aircraft cable. See Chapter 5 for a general discussion of rigging precautions. Lightning Lightning effects can be generated in a variety of ways, many of them hazardous. One of the older methods involves use of carbon arcs. Carbon arcs produce an intense blue flash with large amounts of intense ultraviolet radiation and hazardous carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and metal fumes being emitted. I recommend against the use of carbon arcs. Another dangerous method which should be avoided is applying an electric current to a shaped wire until it incandesces. Other, safer methods include strobes, pulsed xenon photoflash units, Van der Graaf generators, etc. All of these will involve electrical hazards. See the Electrical section in Chapter 5. Mercury Mercury has been used or proposed for use in a number of instances. Its high density, silvery appearance, and the way it breaks up into small globules has attracted some special effects personnel. Unfortunately, mercury is very volatile and is highly toxic by inhalation and skin absorption. High, acute exposures can cause chest pain, shortness of breath, and chemical pneumonia; chronic exposure can cause skin allergies, kidney damage, tremors, gum problems, memory problems, mood and personality changes, and difficulty in concentrating. The hot lights used in filming will increase the amount of vaporization of the mercury. In addition, there is a risk of spills which can be difficult to clean up safely and adequately. Therefore, I recommend against using mercury in special effects due to the extraordinary precautions required. Miniatures The main hazards associated with miniature sets is in the materials used to make them (see Chapter 4). An additional problem in miniature sets comes when filming in an enclosed set. There have been complaints of fatigue, nausea, headaches, etc. This can come from the buildup in concen- tration of chemicals off-gassing from set materials, or even decomposition of set materials (e.g. plastic foams) by the heat from inadequately insulated lights. Portable ventilators can be used to provide fresh air to these enclosed sets. See also Remote-Controlled Effects. Noise Intense noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. This could be a threat to actors, camera crew or others in close proximity to loud noises such as those caused by gunshots or sonic flashes. If personnel have to be close to such noise, they should be wearing protective ear plugs or ear muffs. If possible, however, try to eliminate, isolate, or reduce the noise level so ear plugs are not needed. Rain When using rain effects with water, ensure that the water can't contact electrical outlets or equipment. Installation of ground fault circuit interrupters with alternating current is recommended. Care should be taken to ensure that actors who get wet have a warm, dry location to dry off between takes. If the temperature is below freezing, then icy and slippery conditions are another hazard. Recycled water can be a hazard if it becomes contaminated. Rigging and piping for rain machines can be hazardous if they come in contact with high power lines; this caused a fatality while filming "Men Don't Leave" in Baltimore in 1988. Remote-Controlled Effects Remote controlled model cars and airplanes (or full sized ones), robots, etc. are an increasingly important type of special effect. The controller can either be an individual or a computer. Precautions should be taken to ensure that accidental activation of remote-controlled devices can not occur. This could lead to accidents. It is also important to ensure that abort procedures are developed to enable stopping the action in an emergency. Pyrotechnics should never be radio-controlled due to the risk of stray radio signals from elsewhere setting off the pyrotechnics at the wrong time. Snow Artificial snow is often made of shredded paper, polypropylene or similar plastics. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on any artificial snow materials used in order to ensure that irritating chemicals are not present. Although most types of artificial snow are not hazardous by themselves, sweeping the material up and reusing it has resulted in respiratory and eye irritation, and allergic reactions due to contamination with molds and other materials that are on the floor. Do not reuse artificial snow. Crew should use dust masks to avoid inhalation. Note that these artificial snows are often combustible and should not be used near flames or heated surfaces. Paper can be flame-proofed. Real snow and crushed ice is also used. Snow and ice-making machines can generate dangerous levels of carbon monoxide and should only be used with ventilation. In addition real ice and snow are a hazard in close proximity to unprotected electrical equipment. Special Effects Make-Up A variety of make-up materials can be used for special effects. Adhesive materials can be used to adhere hairpieces, beards, artificial noses, and appliances (other facial and body parts). Making of Appliances: In the past, appliances were often made from putty, wax and similar materials. Today, foam latex rubber, silicone rubber molding compounds, polyurethane rubber and foams, etc. are also used to make appliances. The major hazard from latex rubber is possible skin irritation and possibly serious allergies from some of the ingredients. Many also contain some ammonia, a skin, eye and respiratory irritant. The catalysts in some two-component rubber molding materials are organic peroxides, which are severe eye irritants and are possible fire hazards. Polyurethane systems are the most dangerous because of the very hazardous isocyanates, which can cause severe and possibly even life-threatening asthma at extremely low concentrations. I recommend against their use. The hazards of the polyurethane, epoxy and polyester resins, and of adhe- sives, is discussed in more detail in the Props and Models section of Cha- pter 4. Applying and removing appliances: In the past, spirit gum was commonly used for adhering appliances and other types of prostheses. Spirit gum, however, tended to cause allergic reactions. In recent years a variety of medical adhesives have come into common use. The solvents contained in these adhesive materials, and the solvents needed to remove the adhesive are one source of problems. Skin contact with solvents can cause irritation, especially in sensitive areas like the neck, back and chest. Removal of these adhesive products with solvents such as acetone and mineral spirits can cause drying and irritation of the skin. Isopropyl myristate is probably the safest solvent to use when practical, although some people can develop allergic reactions to it. Use of a solvent-resistant barrier cream (e.g. Derma Guard) or protective skin coating can help protect the skin from the effects of solvents, although it may interfere with adhesion. Inhalation of solvent vapors during application of adhesives, and their removal may cause intoxication and other symptoms. Measures should be taken to minimize inhalation and use of fans to blow solvent vapors away from the face is recommended. (See the Solvents and Thinners section of Chapter 4.) The most common problems in removing appliances, however, is skin damage from careless, rough or improper removal which tears off the top layer of skin, and skin irritation from excess rubbing of skin with tissues and solvents during the removal process. Water Use of natural bodies of water or large tanks of water for special effects will be discussed in the next chapter on Stunts. Here, I am only discussing the smaller scale studio use of water for such effects as dripping taps, fountains, sinks, etc. The major concern is the water coming in contact with electrical equipment due to spills or leaks. Use of ground fault circuit interrupters on equipment within six feet of water should be standard in such a situation. Weapons A wide variety of weapons are used in filming, including knives, spears, swords, bows and arrows, crossbows, etc. Firearms were considered in an earlier section. The major criterion is that the weapon must look authentic, and be safe. Weapons such as swords and knives must be strong enough that they will not accidentally break into dangerous, flying pieces during a fight scene. There are many ways of simulating injuries with weapons, including knives and swords with retractable blades, spring-loaded arrows and knives which are attached to the body and spring up on command to simulate a hit, reverse filming, blades with a reservoir of simulated blood in them, and hidden sockets for knives built into protective clothing. Actual fight scenes involving weapons will be discussed in the next chapter on stunts. Wind Wind effects can involve the use of high-powered fans and compressed air systems. The high powered fans must be properly secured to make sure they won't move around, and should be properly screened to protect people. If the fans are blowing dust or other materials, precautions should be taken to protect eyes in particular, and to ensure that combustible materials are not blown in the direction of heated surfaces. High pressure hoses for compressed air must be properly secured to prevent the hoses from flying around. If the fans are gas-powered, then precautions have to be taken against fire when refueling (see Chapter 5). REFERENCES American National Standards Institute. (1986). ANSI Z136.1-1986, Safe Use of Lasers. ANSI, New York. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Office of Compliance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health. (1988). Regulations for the Administration and Enforcement of the Radiation Control Health and Safety Act of 1968. CFR 1000, CFR 1002, CFR 1040. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring. Office of Compliance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health. (1988). Reporting Guide for Laser Light Shows and Displays, HHS Publication FDA 81-8140. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Western Fire Chiefs Association. (1991). Uniform Fire Prevention Code: Article 77, Explosives; Article 78, Special Effects in Motion Picture, Television, Theatrical and Group Entertainment Productions. WFCA. Zeller, G. (1984). The Art of Fire. Zeller International, Downsville. Zeller, G. (1989). Propane Storage Bunker For Special Effects. Zeller International, Downsville.