CHAPTER 8. STUNTS As discussed in Chapter 1, the Screen Actors Guild, in a 1982 study, found that the major causes of injuries and illnesses in films were falls, smoke and chemical inhalation, auto accidents, fight scenes, equipment failure, horses, and motorcycles. Most of these examples are stunt-related, where a stunt can be defined as any action sequence that involves a greater than normal risk of injury to performers or others on the set. This can include falls, fight scenes, car chases, helicopter sequences, horse riding, diving, etc. In many situations, actors are doubled by stunt performers who have extensive experience and training in carrying out hazardous action sequences. Often, however, these scenes are performed by, or involve actors who do not have appropriate or sufficient training in stunts. STUNT PERFORMER QUALIFICATIONS Since 1980, 21 people have been killed in filming and performing stunts, 8 of them stunt performers. There are not adequate statistics on the number of people that have been injured performing stunts, or in the vicinity of stunts. With the high potential for accidents in the carrying out of stunts, the qualifications of the stunt performer become essential. At present there is no standard method for evaluating the qualifications of a stunt performer comparable to those for pyrotechnics operator. This means that anyone can call themselves a stunt performer and a director has no objective way to evaluate their qualifications beyond word of mouth. In recent years, the various stunt performers associations and performers' unions have lobbied for a standard classification system for stunt performer qualifications. Under one proposal developed by the SAG/AFTRA Stunt and Safety Committees, a classification system would establish three levels of stunt performers: Group A, Group B, and Group C. A Qualifications Committee would be established to evaluate and review the qualifications of the stunt performers. C-rated stunt performers would be entry level, including anyone who is employed for at least one day as a stunt performer. C-rated stunt performers would have to be directly supervised by a qualified stunt coordinator. To achieve a Group B rating, a stunt performer would have to have completed a minimum of two years as a C-rated stunt performer with a minimum of 30 days of actual work as a stunt performer. In addition, the stunt performer would have to pass a safety test. A B-rated stunt performer could plan and carry out a stunt not involving any other performers. If other performers would be involved, the B-rated stunt performer would have to be supervised by a stunt coordinator. Group A stunt performers would be stunt coordinators. Under this proposal a stunt coordinator would have to have five years experience as a B-rated stunt performer with a minimum of 180 days of actual work. A classification system for stunt performers is desperately needed. Unfortunately, this proposal was rejected in 1991 by the AMPTP on the basis it would create "legal problems". The AMPTP, however, has not proposed any alternatives. GENERAL STUNT PROCEDURES Chapter 6 discussed planning for stunts and other high risk filming situations. I am going to summarize the discussion here. There are two stages involved: preplanning and the development of safe procedures for the stunt. The preplanning stage involves reviewing the script for hazardous scenes, and evaluation of the risk of the proposed scene. Planning how to do a scene safely involves asking the questions: Is there a safer way to do the scene? Who is in charge? Who does the scene? What outside agencies should be involved? What safety procedures are needed for the scene? As discussed in detail in Chapter 6, the general procedures include: 1. Notification of all personnel of intention to perform a stunt 2. A detailed briefing including stunt details, hazards, who is involved, location of emergency medical facilities, emergency procedures, and names of responsible safety personnel 3. Adequate rehearsal time 4. Last minute briefing with dry run 5. Another meeting if there are substantial changes in the stunt details 6. Clearing all unnecessary personnel off set 7. Adequate communications between personnel and for emergencies It would be impossible to cover all the types of stunts common in film production. Therefore I am choosing to discuss the types of stunts that have been most involved as causes of injuries and fatalities. The stunt safety procedures for helicopters, aircraft, action vehicles, fire, high falls, animals, water stunts, and skydiving are adapted from Safety Bulletins Recommended by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. In some instances I have expanded the recommendations. AIRCRAFT Helicopters and fixed wing aircraft are used for filming from the air and in stunts, both situations involving high risks. Helicopter accidents, in particular, have caused many fatalities. Since 1980, 14 of the 30 people killed while filming were involved in helicopter accidents. In addition, 5 people have been killed while in helicopters while en route to a location or in other film-related situations. Fatalities include pilots, stunt performers, actors, camera crew, directors, etc. - in other words, anyone in the area is at risk in a helicopter accident. By comparison, only one person has been killed since 1980 while filming in an airplane. The reason for many of these accidents is often the use of pilots who are inexperienced in the stunts and maneuvers common in film piloting. As a result they agree to perform stunts or maneuvers for which they are neither adequately prepared nor trained. They may not recognize the actual risks involved. In addition, fatalities have occurred from other personnel failing to obey basic safety procedures while working around and in helicopters. Federal Aviation Administration Regulations The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the use of helicopters and other aircraft. Minimum Safe Altitudes Section 91.79 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR 91.79) specifies minimum safe altitudes for aircraft. Section 91.79(b) requires, in congested areas, a minimum of 1000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2000 feet. Section 91.79(c) specifies a minimum altitude of 500 feet above the surface in non-congested areas, except over open water or in sparsely populated areas. In the latter case, aircraft cannot operate closer than 500 feet to people, vehicles, or structures. Section 91.79(c) says that helicopters may operate at less than the above minimum altitudes if the operation "is conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface." The FAA Administrator can prescribe specific routes and altitudes. The FAA has made special provisions for waiving the minimum altitude requirements of sections 91.79(b) and (c) for motion picture and television filming production. This waiver is required for all aircraft moviemaking operations occurring below the minimum altitudes found in sections 91.79(b) and (c). This includes helicopters, since the Office of Flight Operations has determined through operational history that low altitude moviemaking operations may create a hazard. The FAA requires the development, and acceptance by the FAA, of a "Motion Picture and Television Flight Operations Manual" with criteria and guidelines for proper operation in order to provide maximum safety and protection. The FAA says it will issue a waiver for flight closer than 500 feet only for "consenting participants directly connected with the approved filming sequences". The Flight Operations Manual must contain at least the following: persons authorized within 500 feet, area of operations, permissions to operate from owners and authorities, security plans, procedures for briefing production personnel, certificate of airworthiness, minimum requirements for pilot personnel, and plan of communications. Pilot Qualifications The FAA minimum requirements for pilots on films are: 1) a current U.S. Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot Certificate with ratings appropriate to the category and class of aircraft to be used; 2) at least 500 hours logged as pilot in command; 3) a minimum of 100 hours in the category and class of aircraft to be used; 4) at least 5 hours in the make and model aircraft to be used; and 5) in event of acrobatic maneuvers below 1500 feet, a "statement of competency" specific to operations that will be performed. Many film pilots and FAA personnel believe that the FAA minimum of 500 hours piloting does not provide enough experience or skills needed for film piloting, and that a ratings system should be established for professional film and TV pilots. Helicopters Helicopters can be hazardous while flying, hovering and even while on the ground. The following are recommended precautions. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use helicopters. As discussed earlier, the FAA requires that consent be obtained from all personnel who would be within 500 feet of a helicopter in the air. There should be a discussion of the details of the helicopter scenes, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use helicopters in a scene should also be listed on the call sheet. A possible wording is: "An aircraft is being used and will be flown in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. There should be an independent aviation consultant, who is not the pilot, to recommend and oversee safety procedures. The use of an independent consultant should be mandatory if more than one helicopter or aircraft are involved. In that situation, a pilot who is flying his own helicopter cannot oversee others. Sources of such expertise are the Professional Helicopter Pilots Association on the west coast, and the Helicopter Association International, a Dallas referral service. 3. The aviation consultant (or pilot) is the authority on all aspects of helicopter safety and should be consulted on all questions related to helicopter use. 4. Plot plans and graphics should be prepared to locate landing areas, intended flight plans, designated emergency landing sites, and filming location, as well as types of explosives and squibs. 5. The pilot will have final approval of all aerial traverse and hovering positions of the helicopter. 6. One individual should be in charge of ground to air radio communication. This communications shall be on a single channel and operate at all times during operation of the helicopter. 7. The individual in charge of the helicopter support truck should be responsible for direct safety around the helicopter. 8. Smoking should not be allowed within 50 feet of the helicopter. 9. Only required personnel should be closer than 50 feet from the helicopter. 10. Use extreme caution when working around helicopters, particularly if the motor is running. Always approach and leave the helicopter from the front of the craft; avoid the rear and tail sections and never walk under the tail. 11. Carry all equipment parallel to the ground, when within 50 feet of the helicopter; never extend equipment vertically into rotor blades. This is to prevent contact with the rotor blades. 12. Do not throw any debris onto the ground around the helicopter. The landing area should be cleared of debris that could fly into the air. The ground can be wet down, if necessary. 13. Protect eyes and equipment when the helicopter is landing or taking off. 14. All helicopter occupants, including pilots, shall wear flight helmets. 15. If the helicopter door is removed for the camera operators to shoot from, all occupants should wear seat belts and have safety harnesses. The cameras should be secured separately from operators. 16. Appropriate safety measures approved by the pilot shall be taken when filming with the engine running. Crew and equipment shall be protected from flying debris caused by operating engines. 17. In combined vehicle/helicopter stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to the stunt drivers and pilot. 18. In helicopter stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the pilot must have the authority to abort if he or she feels the stunt is hazardous to the helicopter or any personnel. Fixed Wing Airplanes Fixed wing aircraft have their own set of hazards, both in the air, and while taxiing or maneuvering on the ground. Many of the same safety procedures for helicopters also apply to airplanes. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use airplanes. As discussed earlier, the FAA requires that consent be obtained from all personnel who would be within 500 feet of an aircraft in the air. There should be a discussion of the details of the scenes, involving aircraft, the hazards and precautions being taken, and a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures can be found in Chapter 6. The intention to use aircraft in a scene should be listed on the call sheet. A possible wording is: "An aircraft is being used and will be flown in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. There should be an independent aviation consultant on the ground who is not the pilot to recommend and oversee safety procedures. This independent consultant should be mandatory if more than one helicopter or aircraft are involved since a pilot who is flying his own aircraft cannot oversee others, or if an aerial coordinator is required by a government agency. 3. The aviation consultant (or pilot) is the authority on all aspects of airplane safety and should be consulted on all questions related to use of the aircraft. Stunt details will not be changed without the approval of the pilot and aviation consultant, if any. They must have the authority to abort a sequence. 4. Plot plans and graphics should be prepared to locate landing areas, intended flight plans, designated emergency landing sites, and filming location, as well as types of explosives and squibs. 5. One individual should be in charge of ground to air radio communication. This communication shall be on a single channel, and be continuous during operation of the aircraft. 6. The individual in charge of the airplane support truck should be responsible for safety around the aircraft. 7. Smoking is not allowed within 100 feet of the aircraft or support truck. 8. As per FAA regulations, only required personnel with written or verbal permission should be allowed closer than 500 feet from the aircraft. 9. A licensed pilot should be in the pilot's seat and in control whenever the aircraft's engine is running. Cast or crew should not be allowed in the aircraft when the engine is running unless the pilot is in control. 10. Aircraft engines should not be started or the aircraft taxied in areas where people are present, unless safety measures have been taken to eliminate any hazard to the people in the area. These measures include protecting cast, crew and equipment from flying debris caused by the taxiing or taking off of airplanes, and from the propellers when filming in front of the propellers. In the latter case, the airplane should be anchored against forward motion. 11. If the safety of aerial scenes involving low passes over the camera is questioned, a briefing between the pilot (and aviation consultant) and concerned individuals should be held to decide whether to use a locked-off camera. 12. If the airplane door is removed for the camera operators to shoot from, they should wear seat belts and have safety harnesses. The cameras should be secured separately from operators. 13. Cameras and equipment shall be located safely with the approval of the pilot when filming landings, takeoffs and taxiing of airplanes. Each end of the operational runway or landing area should be cleared while landing or taking off. 14. The aircraft should never be pointed in the direction of the camera crew or performers during acrobatic maneuvers. 15. Because of the risk of damage to the aircraft, never place objects on, or sit on or in the aircraft without the pilots permission. Similarly do not push or otherwise handle the aircraft without permission. If foreign objects fall into or on the aircraft, notify the pilot or aviation consultant. 16. In combined vehicle/airplane stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to the vehicle stunt drivers and stunt pilot. 17. In airplane stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the pilot must have the authority to abort if he or she feels the stunt is hazardous to the aircraft or any personnel. VEHICLE ACTION SEQUENCES Stunt-related vehicle accidents are a major problem in filming. Of 21 fatalities related to stunts or special effects since 1980 in film production, three camera operators and two stunt performers have been killed in vehicle accidents. A SAG study of injuries from 1982-1984 showed 10% of injuries were in automobile accidents, and 5% in motorcycle accidents. Who is the Driver A major concern is who should drive a car or other vehicle in a scene. If the scene involves risks beyond normal driving, then specially trained drivers are needed. Even for normal driving, the degree of driving skill of an actor/driver must be ascertained by an expert. The degree of risk in a vehicle action sequence depends on a variety of conditions, including speed, driving activities, other activities going on inside the vehicle at the same time, type of terrain, involvement of other vehicles, any special effects or specific stunts (e.g. fire, explosions, vehicle to vehicle transfers, etc.), and camera location. If the scene involves several cars, then a stunt coordinator is necessary to oversee the filming of the scene, even if only ordinary driving is involved. If hazardous activities are involved, such as car chase scenes where cars are weaving in and out of traffic, then all cars in the scene should be driven by stunt drivers because even good drivers might not react properly in such a scene. All passengers should also be stunt performers. For many types of hazardous driving activities, the use of insert camera cars is recommended. Insert camera cars were discussed in the Cameras section of Chapter 5. A major question has revolved around the issue of precision drivers versus stunt drivers. In many instances, especially when filming one of the multitudinous car commercials, the economic question of paying residuals to stunt drivers has overridden the safety issue of whether a stunt driver is necessary. Precision drivers should be restricted to scenes involving simple high speed driving, formation driving, or similar driving situations which do not involve special effects or hazards to other personnel. General Recommendations The following are some basic recommendations for vehicle action sequences. Each specific type of vehicle action sequence, however, needs specific procedures developed for that scene. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use vehicle action sequences. This should also be listed on the call sheet. A description such as follows can be used, if applicable: "A vehicle is being used and will be driven in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. All passengers in scenes involving vehicle action sequences (and drivers in ordinary driving scenes) should receive special training from a stunt coordinator in emergency procedures in the event something goes wrong. 3. All automotive vehicles used should be equipped with seat belts and harnesses, and airbags when possible. If seat belts are not possible with certain types of vehicles, for example vintage cars, then alternative safety measures should be taken. 4. Vehicles involved in side swipes, T-bones, head-ons, all roll-overs and jumps, and other collisions should be equipped with 4, 5 or 6-point harnesses for both drivers and passengers. In certain collisions, padding of drivers, and wearing of surgical collars and crash helmets would also be recommended. Other types of protection include roll bars, removal of hazardous car fixtures, and removal of excess oil and gasoline. 5. Where possible, no one should be in the vehicle during crashes or explosions. For example, Vic Magnotta's death while filming "Skip Tracer" in 1987 in Hoboken would have been prevented if he had not actually been in the car when it went into the Hudson River. Former Chief Venditto of the NYC Fire Department had refused to allow the producer to do the stunt in New York City because of the risks. (See also the section on water stunts.) 6. Only qualified stunt performers shall be on the towbar or exterior of towed vehicles. This does not include any specifically designed, towed camera platform. 7. Automobiles and other vehicles involving internal combustion engines shall only be operated inside buildings or enclosed structures if adequate ventilation to the outside for exhaust gases is provided. This ventilation should be sufficient to keep carbon monoxide levels below the OSHA standard of 35 parts per million. Carbon monoxide monitors should be used to monitor the carbon monoxide level. 8. Precautions should be taken to avoid the risks of cars crashing into cameras and their operators. Moving vehicles should not be driven directly towards the camera if the operator is behind the camera. Use remotely controlled cameras only. 9. In combined vehicle/helicopter stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to both the vehicle stunt drivers and the pilot. 10. In vehicle stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the driver must have the authority and ability to abort if he or she feels the stunt is too hazardous. In fire and explosion stunts in particular, there must be excellent communication between the vehicle driver, any other stunt performer and the special effects operators as to the nature and hazard of the type of fire or explosion effect. Motorcycles As mentioned previously, motorcycle scenes provide even more of a risk due to the lack of protection on motorcycles. Even simple motorcycle scenes can be dangerous, as shown by the accident which resulted in the death of Dar Robinson in 1986 - a simple ride past the cameras in which his motorcycle went out of control. In addition to the general precautions above, the following are specific recommendations for motorcycle stunts. 1. The motorcycle operator should have a current, valid motorcycle operator's license, and have experience with the type of terrain and driving conditions involved. If unusual conditions are involved, then experienced stunt performers should be used. 2. Only essential personnel should be on the set. 3. Protective clothing and equipment such as crash helmets, gloves and surgical collars should be mandatory, except when the scene requires closeups. In that case protective clothing should be worn under the costume. 4. Motorcycles, ramps and other equipment should be examined by the stunt coordinator before use. 5. All picture motorcycles shall be equipped with a grounded, cut-off switch (deadman switch). When a stunt is to be performed, this switch shall be attached to the handlebars in such a manner that the engine shuts off when the rider separates from the motorcycle. 7. Picture motorcycles are not to be used for transportation. Only designated operators and riders shall be permitted to operate or ride the motorcycle. FIRE AND EXPLOSION STUNTS Precautions for fire and explosions were discussed in detail in the previous chapter in the sections on Pyrotechnics and Fire. In this section, I will discuss personal risk to the stunt performers involved and the combination of several types of stunts. 1. As discussed previously, all personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use fire and explosion stunts. There should be a discussion of the type of fire or explosion effect, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on general procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use these effects should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. The special effects coordinator and stunt coordinator should be consulted on all aspects of necessary fire prevention, medical and safety precautions. 3. All costumes of actors in the vicinity of a flame should be adequately fireproofed, or of high wool or cotton content. Synthetics are not advised due to the melting properties of many synthetics when burning. 4. For stunt performers who could be exposed to flames directly, for example escaping from a burning car, more protection is needed. The water-soluble protective barrier gel called Zel Jel is a recent innovation for protecting the stunt performer's skin, clothing and hair. Gary Zeller received an Oscar in 1989 for developing Zel Jel. Gary Zeller's book, The Art of Fire, discusses fire stunts in much more detail, and Gary Zeller and Stephen Wolf have produced a videotape outlining safe procedures for performing body "burns". A "partial burn" is defined as one in which the amount of fire is limited to a restricted part of the body (e.g. an arm, leg or part of torso), and does not inhibit the sight or breathing of the stunt performer. A "full burn" is one in which a substantial portion of the body is on fire or when the flames reach or interact with head area and could limit sight or breathing. Breathing apparatus or eye protection would be needed for these. 5. There should be at least two (three, according to some stunt coordinators) trained safety people on hand for "partial burns", and at least three (five, according to some stunt coordinators) trained safety people for "full burns". Each person should be equipped with carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. 6. Other types of protective clothing for fire stunts include fireproof "long johns" or complete fireproof suits under costumes, fireproof face masks, flame resistant gloves, boots, use of hidden oxygen tanks, etc. 7. Simulating being thrown through the air as a result of an explosion is another type of stunt. This is often done with a trampoline, the size of the trampoline depending on the height to which the stunt performer would be thrown. For small trampolines, sand pits are usually used for landing; for larger ones, crash pads. Another common method involves use of ratchets, a type of catapult system. These can be very hazardous due to the high initial acceleration which jerks the stunt performer who is attached to a harness, and the high velocity achieved. One stunt performer was killed doing this, and others have been injured. Careful rigging and targeting of the landing area is essential. 8. There have been several accidents involving body squibs, and they are now considered a stunt in Ontario. Children are not permitted to be squibbed. FIGHT SCENES Fight scenes can involve anything from fistfights or other methods of unarmed combat to the use of knives, swords, firearms, etc. The use of firearms and special effects weapons was discussed in the last chapter. This section will deal with the actual fight itself, or stage combat as it is commonly called. The problem is to make the fight look real but not injure anyone. In essence, stage combat is a sophisticated dance that can involve fists, feet, or weapons. In order to make sure this is done safely, an expert has to stage (i.e. choreograph) the fight, and the actors have to be properly trained and rehearsed. An important decision is whether or not to use stunt doubles. This is determined by what is involved. If the fight is a simple throwing of punches, wrestling on the floor, or a simple duel, then actors can usually be trained for this (if willing). However if the fight involves crashing through windows, falling down stairs, or similar hazardous activities, then a stunt double should be used for that scene or that part of the scene. One group that trains actors for stage combat is the Society of Fight Directors (SAFD). This training can involve learning proficiency in a variety of weapons. An actor can become a Certified Actor/Combatant through a 100-hour program. In addition the SAFD trains and tests individuals as Certified Teachers, who can teach stage combat. Certified Fight Masters are trained to choreograph stage fights. In addition, many stunt coordinators are experienced in staging fights. The following are recommendations for stage combat: 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a stage fight. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. All fights should be choreographed by a fight director who can be an experienced stunt coordinator or certified fight master. The fight director stages and rehearses the fight. This individual or other qualified person should actually supervise the fight and should not be a participant. 3. Only adequately trained actors should participate in a stage fight. They should have experience with any weapons used. They should have adequate rehearsal time for the planned fight. 4. In the actual fight, the first rule is that a weapon, fist or kick should never be aimed directly at an actor, so that a misjudgment in distance or timing does not cause an injury. Instead, aim to the side and use camera angles to make the fight look real. 5. Actors in a fight should wear appropriate protective clothing or equipment to prevent injury in case of an accident. 6. The actors involved, fight director, director, or other safety personnel must be able to abort a fight if there is any unresolved safety concern. 7. No horseplay with weapons should be allowed. FALLS Falls can involve anything from falling down several stairs, falling off a horse, or a high fall off a building or cliff. (Falling off horses will be discussed in the next section on Horses.) All falls should be done by experienced stunt performers. Even short falls of a few feet require experience in knowing how to fall and land safely. Often falls can be simulated through use of dummies, camera angles and misleading juxtaposition of scenes. For example, falling down a flight of stairs can be filmed a few stairs at a time so that the stunt performer is never out of control. Falling off a tall building might actually involve only jumping a few feet onto a net or hidden ledge and using a dummy for the rest of the fall. High Falls High falls - any fall from a height requiring a specialized fall/arrest system for safe deceleration of the stunt performer - are among the most dangerous stunts. Falling off a cliff during a scene for the film "Sword and the Sorcerer", for example, killed stuntman Jack Tyre in 1981 when he missed the airbag. In the last ten years, two other stunt performers have been killed in falls. This type of stunt should be simulated with a dummy whenever possible. Decades ago, nets and mattresses were used at the end of the fall. In the mid 1960's, crash pads consisting of canvas filled with foam rubber and covered with tarpaulins provided more safety. Today, airbags, decelerators, and other modern equipment are generally used for high falls. Older methods are still used safely for lower falls. 1. The director and/or production manager will consult with the stunt coordinator to determine if a stunt performer is needed for a high fall instead of a dummy. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a high fall. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. An experienced high fall stunt coordinator should be chosen. The high fall coordinator, in cooperation with the director and production manager will determine the type of safety equipment to be used (e.g. boxes, air bag, descender, decelerator). The high fall coordinator shall not be the performer doing the fall, unless someone else is coordinating during the actual fall. 4. There should be at least two safety spotters for falls over 15 feet. 5. Boxes should not be used for falls over 40 feet, and air bags for falls over 120 feet. Falls over 120 feet require fall arrest systems such as descenders or decelerators to control the rate of fall. 6. The stunt coordinator shall have final say over placement of objects around the landing area for falls, and whether conditions such as wind, rain, etc. are acceptable for the fall. 7. All equipment such as air bags, associated generators, decelerators, etc. shall be tested, and inspected immediately before use. ANIMALS Scenes involving animals are potentially very hazardous. Animals can be unpredictable. Some animals, for example large cats, can attack people if startled. Other animals, for example horses, can be dangerous just because of their size. Dangerous, untrained animals should not be used on motion picture sets. In addition to risks to the actors and crew, the health and safety of the animal should be a prime consideration. General Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use animals in a scene. This notice should include the species of animal involved since many individuals can have severe, even life-threatening, allergic reactions to particular animals. The set should be closed so that only essential personnel are present during scenes involving animals since animals are often intimidated by large numbers of strangers and noise. The closing of the set should also be listed on the call sheet and a "Closed Set" notice posted on all stages where animals are present. 2. The producer should notify the American Humane Association, American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (or other bona fide national organization incorporated for the protection of animals) of the intention to use animals in a scene, make the script available, and allow representatives of the organization to be present during filming. 3. Only trainers and/or handlers, and the designated actors, should be allowed to work with the animals. There should be enough handlers to keep the animals under safe control (e.g. two handlers per large, undomesticated animal (for example, a mountain lion). 4. The trainer providing the animals shall ensure that all required inoculations, medical certificates, licenses, and medical safeguards are obtained. Note that for wild animals, there often are no inoculations available. 5. An easily accessible area shall be available for the loading and unloading of animals. 6. On the set, animals should be provided with adequate space, rest, air, light, water, exercise opportunity, etc. Bright lights and heat should be avoided, and signs of distress and overheating - such as panting, drooling, and rapid breathing - should dictate rest and a cool down period. The animals should not be kept in cramped traveling cages. All regulations of the Federal Animal Welfare Act and any applicable state regulations should be followed. Animals should not be beaten or intimidated to obtain desired responses. 7. Animals, even untrained animals, should never be included in scenes that can injure them. Deliberate killing of animals, use of animals as bait for cats or other carnivores, running over animals, etc. should not be permitted. The opinion of the representative of the animal protection organization as to the safety of a scene (from the point of view of the animal) should be accepted. 8. Basic animal safety equipment should be available. This can include fire extinguishers, fire hose, nets, and tranquilizing equipment. For emergencies with dangerous animals, (e.g. an animal attacking a person), special tranquilizing guns should be used, not firearms. It is essential to obtain the right tranquilizer and dose for the particular animal, in order to obtain a rapid knockout. Veterinarians often are the only people who can legally obtain these tranquilizers. All equipment should be checked to ensure it is in operating condition. If the scene is complicated or potentially dangerous, a qualified veterinarian should be present. 9. Sedation or tranquilization of animals should only be done for the benefit of the animal, and upon advice of the trainer and a qualified veterinarian (except in an emergency). Animals shall not be sedated or tranquilized to calm them for a scene since this can make them unpredictable. Reptiles should never be sedated. 10. Scenery and props should be secured so they can't tip over or startle the animals. 11. A stunt coordinator having experience with animals shall be responsible for coordinating the stunt involving the animal. The stunt coordinator and animal trainer shall be given the opportunity to discuss safety precautions with the performers and crew (including the parents and/or guardian of any children) before the animals are on the set. These precautions include: * maintaining a safe distance from wild and exotic animals * no personal pets on the set while other animals are present * no feeding of animals * no running or loud noises * setting of escape routes * no alcohol or perfume near animals if the trainer thinks it would upset the animals * no menstruating women on the set if the trainer decides it might upset the animals (especially large cats or bears) 12. Animals, their handlers, the stunt coordinator, and involved performers should be given sufficient time to familiarize themselves with the set and each other. 13. Live ammunition shall not be allowed on the set, only blank ammunition. The level of blank loads and explosives shall be determined by the stunt coordinator, trainer and firearms expert. The animal handlers shall be given advance notice of gunshots or other noises, light flashes, or any other activity which could upset an animal. Every effort should be made to exclude animals from the set during gunshots, explosions, etc. Horses Scenes involving horses are a standard part of many types of films, especially the perennial American Western. Riding horses, however, is a major cause of accidents in motion picture production. These accidents can result from accidentally falling off the horse, a falling stunt that goes wrong, or injuries to people around the horses. The following recom- mendations are in addition to the general ones for animals discussed above. 1. There should be one horse handler or wrangler for every three action horses. 2. It is crucial that the horse chosen for the scene is trained for the type of activity that will occur. Ordinary riding stable horses may be suitable for scenes involving simple riding on level ground. 3. For galloping, crowd scenes, or other unusual activities, you need specially trained horses. For crowd scenes (e.g. mounted police in a riot scene), horses trained to be around moving people should be used. Actual trained police horses are commonly used. Use of untrained horses has resulted in injuries to crowd extras in such scenes, just from being hit by a moving horse. 4. If activities such as having the horse deliberately fall are involved, only trained stunt horses should be used. Horses must neither be deliberately tripped, nor should pitfalls be used to accomplish falls. 5. Even normal riding can be hazardous under certain conditions. Riding horses quickly over broken terrain, for example, is very risky since they can stumble in holes or even break a leg, and result in a thrown, injured, or killed rider. The riding route should be carefully scouted, and safe routes chosen. 6. Horses shall be properly shod for the terrain being used for the scene (e.g. street, dirt, etc.). 7. Hitching rails shall be securely fastened so the horses cannot pull them loose (e.g. sleeve installation). On a stage, the hitch rail should be bolted or rigidly fastened. 8. If the scene involves an ordinary horse ride with no unusual features - e.g. no galloping in unusual terrain, no falls, no trick riding, no unusual sounds or lighting effects - then stunt doubles are not needed. The riding actor, however, should be an experienced horse rider, and be familiar with the type of saddle being used. If the scene calls for galloping, the actor must have galloping experience. 9. For horse stunts involving unusual features, experienced stunt riders are needed. Stunts involving falling off horses or dragging behind a horse are potentially very hazardous since you do not just worry about the fall but about being injured by the horse. Quick release stirrups, special harnesses and fake camera shots are some of the ways this can be accomplished. Even when such precautions are taken, things can go wrong. In 1977, Jim Shepard was killed during the filming of "Comes a Horseman", when he got tangled in the ropes in a scene where he is shot off a horse and dragged. 10. All personnel in the vicinity of horses have to be careful. Remember a horse can weigh as much as a ton or more. They can be very unpredictable, jumping at sharp noises, the sudden appearance of a rabbit, or a person quickly moving. Horses can also bite and kick people when upset. The temperament of the horse should be an obvious factor in selec- tion, but even good-natured horses can react negatively if startled. Another concern around horses is to be careful not to get stepped on, as even experienced horse handlers have found. Venomous Reptiles Venomous reptiles such as rattlesnakes and other more exotic varieties need special precautions to prevent or treat bites. A good special effects house can make pneumatic snakes and reptiles as an alternative to live ones. The following are precautions required if live venomous snakes or reptiles are used. 1. The snake should be milked the same day to remove most of the venom. 2. The proper antidote (anti-venom) for the particular reptile on the set shall be available. The location of the anti-venom shall be printed on the call sheet. 3. If a live, poisonous reptile is to be used near people, where there is a chance of being bitten, medical personnel qualified to administer injections and trained in the use of anti-venoms shall be present. 4. Only essential personnel shall be allowed within 50 feet of the reptile. 5. Proper protective equipment shall be provided for all personnel working close to the reptile. This can include barriers, gloves, adequate leg guards, etc. 6. Carbon dioxide (CO2) bottles must be on hand. 7. The snake handler shall have a snake pincer. WATER STUNTS AND UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY Chapter 5 has a discussion of the general hazards of filming around and on water. Many special effects and stunts discussed in this and the previous chapter are inherently more dangerous on or in water because of the additional risk of drowning. However, there are some unique types of water stunts that need separate discussion. General Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to do a water stunt. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. All water stunts should be carried out by experienced stunt performers. If other performers are involved in the scene, they must be trained in the appropriate boat and water safety. 3. For speedboat stunts, or similar stunts involving several boats, see the section on Vehicle Action Sequences. Many of the recommendations there are also applicable to this type of stunt. Stunt performers should have experience with the type of boats involved in the stunt. 4. Sea battles and other stunts involving fire and explosion special effects must be coordinated with the special effects coordinator. (See Chapter 7) 5. A qualified sailing master should coordinate sailing activities involving several vessels. This individual should not participate in the film as a performer. 6. Emergency teams, including certified safety divers should be on hand for all water stunts. Underwater Activities All underwater activities should be classified as hazardous stunts. The following recommendations specifically refer to the use of SCUBA equipment using compressed air underwater. Certified Divers are divers holding current and valid certification cards issued by a nationally or internationally recognized certification organization. SCUBA Instructors are certified annually, carry appropriate insurance, and must maintain continuing education. In addition to the general recommendations above, the following are specific recommendations for underwater activities: 1. Oxygen, and personnel trained in its use, shall be on any set where SCUBA or other underwater activities are planned. 2. Whether scuba divers and equipment are necessary for a particular scene shall be determined by the safety officer in consultation with the stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator or production manager (in case of underwater photography). 3. If SCUBA equipment will be used, a SCUBA diver coordinator shall be named. The SCUBA coordinator should be an instructor or Divemaster, and have an endorsement or certificate greater than the diver(s). 4. Any person using SCUBA equipment while filming or being filmed shall be a Certified Diver. A SCUBA instructor can certify performers or camera operators with a few lessons. For safety reasons, the performer or camera operator shall be under the supervision of a currently Certified SCUBA Instructor, and shall have sufficient instruction and training for the proposed activity. The appropriate depth for safe filming shall be determined by the Certified Instructor supervising the safety of the performers. Performers who are not certified divers shall not be required to work in depths greater than 10 feet. 5. The number of certified safety divers required should be based on the following: * There should never be only one diver. * Two divers are required when the diver's duties are similar to those of a lifeguard, e.g. surface work, rescue boat, rescue close to shore. * Three divers are required for most underwater work or rescue, where underwater usually means below six feet. One diver always remains on the surface as a dive coordinator, and records time-in and time-out of the water. * Five divers are required for ice dives, larger work projects, or harbor surveys. These divers would be divided into two dive teams and one on-surface coordinator. * Five or more divers are required for larger work or rescue projects. 6. All safety divers shall be equipped with an "octopus" type spare regulator, and an alternative air source. 7. Any person performing a stunt where he or she could be trapped underwater shall have standby breathing equipment immediately available. 8. For dives below 30 feet, emergency procedures for decompression must be established. Emergency transportation should be arranged in advance, in case of a diving accident. If a diving accident occurs, the Diver Alert Network (DAN) should be contacted to determine the nearest available recom- pression chamber. This call should not be made in advance because chamber availability is constantly changing. DAN's emergency number is (919) 684-8111, and their non-emergency number (919) 684-2948. (See also Chapter 9) This information shall be added to the call sheet and all involved persons notified. 9. An emergency recall system shall be available and operational. 10. SCUBA tanks in transport should be properly secured to prevent them from rolling around or endangering the valve. When not in use, SCUBA tanks are to be stored in the shade. 11. Occupied vehicles being submerged during a stunt must be driven by a certified diver and carry extra breathing apparatus. In addition, an escape hatch must be built into the vehicle. Once a vehicle is submerged, the air becomes compressed under water pressure. The driver must exhale on the way up to avoid lung overexpansion. 12. In any stunt where a manned vehicle is jumping more than 10 feet from the shore, a safety pickup boat must be in the water with at least three safety divers. 13. Do not use SCUBA tanks for resuscitation since they do not contain pure oxygen. See Chapter 9 for emergency medical care procedures. SKYDIVING Skydiving or parachuting is a hazardous undertaking. In 1983, Joseph Leonard Szec was killed performing a skydive during the filming of "The Right Stuff". The following are recommendations for skydiving. The term "certified parachutist" means a parachutist holding a current and valid certification card issued by a nationally or internationally recognized certification organization (e.g. United States Parachute Association or Canadian Sports Parachute Association). 1. Whether skydiving is necessary for a particular scene should be determined by consultation between the stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator, production manager and camera operator. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a sky dive. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. The certification organization should be contacted to determine the type of endorsement of certification needed by the parachutist for the jump. At a minimum, the parachutist should have a Professional Exhibition Rating from the U.S. Parachute Association or equivalent. 4. A skydive coordinator with a certification or endorsement greater than the jumper should be chosen. This could be the stunt coordinator, if so qualified. The skydive coordinator is responsible for the safety of the jump, and determines whether the location, weather (wind velocity, cloud ceiling height, visibility, etc.), communications and security are adequate. He or she has final authority over timing, and whether or not to cancel the jump. 5. Before each jump, all persons involved shall be thoroughly briefed and there should be a dry run on the ground at the site. 6. All jumps shall be in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations Part 105. The pilot of the plane shall be endorsed for skydiving and familiar with this type of filming operation. The pilot shall have the authority to cancel the jump. See also the section on Aircraft for safety with aircraft and radio communications procedures. 7. All equipment, props, wardrobe, etc. shall be checked by the skydive coordinator prior to the jump. The coordinator shall have final approval over the use of all equipment and wardrobe. 8. The FAA requires that all reserve parachutes be packed by an appropriately rated parachute rigger. 9. The landing site should be cleared of all non-essential personnel and appropriate security provided. Potentially hazardous landing sites should be eliminated, if possible. Special precautions are needed for intended water landings, or for mislandings that could end in the water. There should be a pickup boat and flotation gear for each parachutist. (See also Water Stunts). Precautions should also be developed for landing near or into other hazardous areas if moving the site is not possible. 10. Lighting for night landings should be carefully reviewed with the parachute coordinator. The landing site should be evaluated during daylight hours. REFERENCES Federal Aviation Administration. (1988). Federal Aviation Regulations 14 CFR 91.79. Minimum safe altitudes. Government Printing Office, Washington. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Zeller, G. (1984). The Art of Fire. Zeller International, Downsville.