LIGHTS! CAMERA! SAFETY! A Health and Safety Manual for Motion Picture and Television Production by Michael McCann, Ph.D., C.I.H. -------------------------------------------------------------- Copyright c 1991 by Center for Safety in the Arts Copyright c 1998 Michael McCann ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without prior written permission from the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and articles. All inquiries should be addressed to: michael.mccann@worldnet.att.net. This book was written with the help of public funds from the New York State Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- PREFACE Lights! Camera! Safety! is a natural outgrowth of the work the Center for Safety in the Arts has been doing on hazards in the arts for the last 14 years. Starting in 1986, CSA began to intensively research, and provide training and technical assistance to unions, employees and employers on hazards in the entertainment industry. This was accomplished with grants from the New York State Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program. Our interest in hazards in the motion picture and television industries was stimulated by the pioneering activities of Sandy Richman, then Co-chair of the Stunt and Safety Committee of SAG (Screen Actors Guild) and AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists), and President of the Professional Stuntman's Federation. Sandy alerted us to the many problems involved with safety on the set. As I began to research this area, I assumed with many others that the outcry over the deaths of Vic Morrow and two Vietnamese children during the filming of a helicopter and explosions scene for "The Twilight Zone: A Movie" had led to a great increase in safety in motion picture production. However, the statistics I gathered indicated the opposite - accidents and deaths were still increasing (see discussion in Chapter 1). In addition, the trial of John Landis, the Director of "The Twilight Zone", and four others for manslaughter was taking place at that time. When they were acquitted, many people i n the industry expressed the feeling that this acquittal meant business would go on as usual. This is not to say that nothing was being done about this safety problem. A coalition of entertainment unions, including the Screen Actors Guild (through their Stunt and Safety Committee), Directors Guild, and IATSE, worked with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP) to form the Labor/Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. This committee developed a series of Safety Bulletins listing guidelines for a variety of hazardous situations. Similar work has been going on in Ontario, Canada through the Ontario Film and Television Indus try Section 11 Advisory Committee, a tripartite of labor, management and government, and in Australia. However, what was missing was an overall approach to the problem of health and safety in motion picture and television production. There did not appear to be any organized attempt to address the entire problem. That is, there were few formalized health and safety programs on sets. In addition, we found many different sources for information on hazards and suitable safety precautions, many of which were generally unknown to the entertainment industry. As a result, we decided to write a health and safety manual for motion picture and television production. And that is how Lights! Camera! Safety! came into existence, with the help of funding from the NYS Department of Labor. Chapters 1 and 2 of the book discuss the types of hazards in motion picture production, and a general approach to health and safety planning. Chapters 3-5 discuss selecting a location, preproduction hazards, and general health and safety on location. High risk situations, including special effects and stunts, are the topics of Chapters 6-8. Finally, Chapters 9 and 10 discuss medical services on location and appli cable laws and regulations affecting film production. We tried to compile into one book information from a wide variety of sources: from our own research into areas like fogs and smoke, makeup, etc; from government regulations; and from recommendations of the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee and the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. I hope that readers will find this a useful approach. Credits Finally I want to thank people who helped with this book. Major editing and advice came from Angela Babin and Karen Giacalone, both CSA staff members. In addition, a wide variety of people in and out of the industry provided information on particular sections, and reviewed the manuscript. These include: Stephen Arnold, M.D., Entertainment Medical Specialists Lloyd Caldwell, fight director Richard Cohn, Local 52, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees John G. Degenkolb, fire protection engineer Lt. James DiGiovanna, Aerobureau, Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department Craig Feied, M.D., Lifestar International Celia Hamilton, Alliance of Canadian Television and Radio Artists Michael Kinter, American Federation of Television and Radio Artists Robert Marcus, Esq. Ingrid E. Newkirk, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals James D'Orta, M.D, International Medical Consulting Lee Proimos, Fireman's Fund Sandy Richman Eugene Shapiro, Local 771, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees Dale Smith, Office of Compliance and Surveillance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health Dick Smith, make-up artist John Sucke, NY Executive Director, Screen Actors Guild Bryan Unger, National Representative, International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees Barron Winchester, Dasic/Winchester Group Stephen A. Wolf, Wolf Stuntworks Gary Zeller, Zeller International I would like to give special credit to Angela Babin for the cover design, and to David Lindner for the cover photography. Naturally, all errors in the book are my responsibility. However, I hope there are few. Michael McCann, Ph.D., C.I.H. November, 1991 CHAPTER 1. WHAT IS THE PROBLEM? There are many occupational health and safety hazards associated with motion picture and television production. An obvious example is the professional stunt performer jumping off a cliff or crashing a car. However, as we will see, the risk is not just to stunt performers during these stunts; others can also be affected. In addition, there are a multitude of other occupational hazards that are found on motion picture and television sets and locations, including chemical and safety hazards during preproduction, ordinary fire hazards, special effects, heat and cold, as well as ordinary medical problems ranging from bee stings to heart attacks. Lack of quick access to adequate medical facilities, especially when filming at remote locations, can often exacerbate the problem. FATALITY/INJURY STATISTICS Fatalities The Center for Safety in the Arts has compiled a list of 40 fatalities from 1980-89 in motion picture and television production (see Table 1-1). This includes fatalities in American films and in films shot abroad by American companies or their subsidiaries. Of these 40 fatalities, 21 occurred while doing stunts or special effects. Only 8 of the 21 stunt or special effects fatalities involved stunt performers; the other stunt fatalities included 4 camera operators or related crew, 6 actors, 1 pilot, and 2 bystanders. The important conclusion to be drawn from this is that stunts and special effects put not only stunt performers at risk, but also everyone else on the set as well. Of the remaining 19 fatalities, all 9 of the fatalities that occurred during ordinary filming, and 5 of the 10 non-filming fatalities involved helicopters (and one airplane accident). The rest of the fatalities involved accidents on the set (electrocution, a crane accident, and being hit by a truck and a steel beam, and a blank gun accident). High risk stunts are clearly not the only hazard on the set. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 1-1. Motion Picture/Television Production: Fatalities 1980-89 1980 Rodney Mitchell (cameraman) TV Series: "Dukes of Hazzard". Circumstances: car chase 1980 Robert Van Der Kar (cameraman) TV Series: "Magnum PI". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1980 unknown stuntwoman * Film. Circumstances: fall from roof. 1980 unknown male (producer) * Film: unknown Circumstances: hit by steel beam 1981 Jack Tyre (stuntman) Film: "Sword and the Sorcerer". Circumstances: falling off cliff stunt. 1981 Boris Sagol (director) TV Film: "World War III". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1981 unknown male (camera assistant) * Film. Circumstances: hit by truck 1982 Jack Tandberg (cameraman) TV Film: "The Five of Me". Circumstances: car chase 1982 David Perrin (stunt pilot), Jaron Anderson (mechanic), Nigel Thornton (helicopter pilot). Film: "High Road to China" Circumstances: helicopter crash en route to location in Yugoslavia 1982 Vic Morrow, Myca Dinh Lee, Renee Chen (performers) Film: "The Twilight zone". Circumstances: helicopter accident. 1983 Joseph Leonard Svec (skydiver) Film: "The Right Stuff". Circumstances: skydiving accident 1984 Jon Eric-Hexum (actor) TV Series: "Cover-Up". Circumstances: blank gunshot 1985 Art Scholl (stunt pilot) Film: "Top Gun". Circumstances: airplane accident 1985 Reid Rondell (stuntman) TV Series: "Airwolf" Circumstances: helicopter accident 1985 Claudio Cassinelli (actress), Don Nasca (pilot) Film: "Hands of Stone". Circumstances: helicopter accident 1985 Rich Holley (pilot) Film: "Runaway Train". Circumstances: helicopter accident en route to Alaska filming location 1985 unknown stuntman * Entertainment production. Circumstances: fall from height. 1986 Dar Robinson (stuntman) Film: "Million Dollar Mystery". Circumstances: motorcycle stunt 1986 Bruce Ingram (cameraman) Film: "The Wraith". Circumstances: car chase 1986 Martin Wenzel and Conrad Wenzel (bystanders) Film: "Gor". Circumstances: gas cylinder explosion-fire scene in South Africa. 1986 unknown fatality ** Film: unknown Circumstances: crane accident 1987 Victor Magnotta (stuntman) Film: "Skip Tracer". Circumstances: car stunt 1987 4 unknown fatalities Film: "Braddock: "Missing in Action III". Circumstances: helicopter crash in Philippines. 1988 Patrick Dungan (electrician) Film: "Men Don't Leave". Circumstances: electrocution 1989 Geoff Brewer (stuntman), Gadi Danzig (camera man), Michael Graham (key grip), Jojo Imperial (pilot), Don Marshall (gaffer). Film: "Delta Force 2". Circumstances: helicopter crash in Philippines. 1989 Clint Carpenter (stuntman) Film: "Hired to Kill". Circumstances: helicopter stunt in Corfu. 1989 Tobi Halicki (director) Film: "Gone in 60 Seconds II". Circumstances: falling water tower special effect. Sources: * National Traumatic Occupational Fatality Database (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) ** California Division of Labor Statistics and Research news clippings from the Cinema: Accidents file of the Lincoln Center Library for Performing Arts. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Injuries and Illnesses Accurate statistics on the number of accidents and illnesses in motion picture and television film production are difficult to obtain. It is also difficult to correlate information from different sources since definitions within the industry vary. The Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor provided national information for the motion picture production and services industry for 1985 and 1986 based on the Annual Surveys of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses. For 1986, they reported 4,240 recordable occupational illnesses and injuries in full-time workers, of which 1,600 involved lost workdays. The data for 1985 was about the same in total injuries but 10% higher for lost workday injuries. Table 1-2 shows the number of disabling, nonfatal injuries in motion picture production resulting in more than one lost workday for the years 1980-1988, compiled by the California Division of Labor Statistics and Research. These statistics indicate a definite increase in injuries and illnesses over this time period. During this period, California also reported 13 fatalities directly related to film production. This gives a ratio of 1.5 fatalities per 1000 injuries. This is 3 times higher than the 1988 California average of 0.5 fatalities per 1000 injuries, and higher than the ratio for manufacturing and construction. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 1-2. Disabling, Nonfatal, Work-related Injuries and Illnesses. Motion Picture Industry. California, 1980-1988. Year Injuries 1980-1982 2,588 1983-1985 2,962 1986-1988 2,968 Total 8,518 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Screen Actors Guild (SAG) has also done several studies, based on accident reports submitted by member companies of the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP). One study, reported in Variety in 1985, reported 600 injuries and illness in SAG members between 1982 and 1984. Of those injured, 53% were stunt performers. About 80% of the injuries occurred while filming. In addition, 80% occurred on location, as compared to in studios. A breakdown of the 1982 injuries showed that 34% were due to falls, 21% to smoke and chemical inhalation, 10% to auto accidents, 7% to fight scenes, 7% to equipment failure, 5% to horses, 5% to motorcycles, and 11% to other causes. In conclusion, the statistics indicate there has been an increase in the number of injuries in motion picture and television production over the last several years. Furthermore, the fatality/injury ratio reported earlier for California indicates a higher risk of death, compared to most other industries, once a person is injured. CAUSES OF INJURIES Common Hazards Motion picture and television film production often pose a number of unique fire hazards and risks to life safety as compared to routine fire hazards in commercial buildings because filming and other activities take place in temporary and varying locations. Common hazards are ordinary occurrences that might be associated with most commercial film productions. Examples of these fire and life safety hazards include blocked exits and emergency routes, electrical and lighting hazards, accumulation of combustible materials, smoking, welding and cutting operations, hot surfaces, combustible tents, and inadequate refueling facilities. Filming in remote areas or other countries can make these hazards an even greater risk due to inadequate fire fighting capabilities or the lack of direct and quick access to the filming location by fire fighting personnel and equipment. Location Hazards There are a variety of hazards related to filming on location. In cities, for example, old buildings and warehouses are often used. These buildings can present safety hazards due to unstable walls, broken staircases, falling ceilings, etc. In addition, there can be environmental hazards, such as crumbling asbestos insulation, left-over waste chemicals, and contaminated pigeon droppings. Possible hazards while filming on location in the country include insect stings, contacts with poisonous plants, accidents in mountainous areas, heat-related diseases in deserts, frostbite in cold weather conditions, and drowning in rivers and lakes. Drowning is not the only water hazard around rivers, lakes, oceans, swamps, etc. Other hazards can include poisonous reptiles, contaminated water, flash floods, boating accidents, hypothermia in cold water, and underwater hazards such as undertows and hidden rocks. There is also concern about unusual local health hazards. For example, outdoor filming in many parts of the Northeast could mean having to take special precautions against Lyme Disease caused by deer ticks. In foreign countries, there would be concern about vaccination requirements, possible current epidemics or other local endemic diseases (such as dysentery and typhoid), contaminated water supplies, etc. In addition, local political instability and street violence are causes for concern. Traveling to location is also a serious hazard, since four of the fatalities discussed above involved helicopter travel to the location. Preproduction Hazards The construction and painting of sets - whether in a studio, or on location - can involve a wide variety of health and safety hazards. Construction can involve accidents with scaffolding, ladders, machinery, vehicles, welding equipment, electrical equipment, etc. In addition, welding, wood dust and scraps, flammable solvents, and other combustible materials can present fire hazards. Scenic painting presents many health hazards due to exposure to hazardous solvents, paints and other coatings, dyes, fire retardants, polyurethane foams, and a wide variety of other chemicals. While these hazards can be minimized with proper ventilation in a scenic shop, often fabrication of sets and props on location is difficult to ventilate adequately. Filming Hazards As discussed in the section on Fatality and Injury Statistics, stunts are the main single cause of fatalities in motion picture production. A stunt can be defined as any action sequence that involves greater than normal risk of injury to performers or others on the set. A SAG analysis of films in 1982 found that major causes of injuries and illnesses were falls, smoke and chemical inhalation, auto accidents, fight scenes, equipment failure, horses, and motorcycles. Most of these are stunt-related. Other filming situations which would be considered stunts because they could involve an increased risk of injury or illness include: being a passenger in a stunt car, driving a background car or being a pedestrian in a car chase scene, heat exposure during a desert scene, cold exposure during repeated filming of a scene involving a walk in a cold mountain stream, and underwater or swimming scenes. A major cause of the increasing number of fatalities and accidents involving stunts has been the demand for realism and increasingly more dangerous stunts. For example, 9 of the 21 stunt-related fatalities since 1980 involved helicopters, one example being the death of stunt performer Clint Carpenter while filming "Hired to Kill" in Corfu in 1989. In past years, many of these helicopter scenes would have been simulated - not live action. Even normal filming sequences involving helicopters is hazardous, since 8 of the 9 ordinary filming fatalities involved helicopters (the other involved an airplane). The lack of proper emergency medical care has also been a contributing factor in several filming fatalities. This is typified by the 1983 death of famed stuntman Dar Robinson while filming a motorcycle sequence in Arizona. There was not adequate on-site emergency medical care, nor any provision for emergency evacuation. After waiting about two hours for an ambulance, the film crew loaded him into a station wagon and started driving towards a local hospital. He subsequently died. Medical experts have said that Dar Robinson might have survived and recovered had he received immediate attention from a qualified emergency specialist, had proper and timely emergency transportation, and treatment at a properly staffed and equipped emergency room. Such poor emergency medical care is not restricted to remote location filming. In filming "Sanctuary" in New York City in 1988, two stuntmen got glass in their eyes during a scene involving windows exploding from machine-gun fire. Because advance arrangements had not been made, they had to wait over two hours in the emergency room of a hospital before being treated. Although advance arrangements will not guarantee quick treatment if more serious cases are present, lack of these arrangements can result in delayed medical treatment. Special Effects Hazards Special effects can include fire, pyrotechnics, firearms, fogs and smoke, rain and snow, lightning, lasers, wind and sand storms, computer and model simulations, and a multitude of other situations. The most dangerous types of special effects involve the use of fire, pyrotechnics, and firearms. Many of these special effects scenes are also stunts since actors are involved. The death of Vic Morrow and two children during the 1982 filming of "The Twilight Zone: a Movie" involved a special effects explosion which caused the helicopter to crash onto the actors. Other types of hazardous fire and pyrotechnics special effects include car explosions, simulated bullet hits, burning buildings, flames, flash pots, etc. Firearms are also a potential hazard, whether live ammunition or blanks are used. In 1984, the actor Jon Eric-Hexum accidentally killed himself when he pointed a blank-loaded gun at his head and shot himself during the filming of the TV Series "Cover-Up". There have been many other accidents involving supposedly "safe" blank ammunition. Smoke and fogs used on the set can create respiratory irritation, which, although obviously less dangerous than pyrotechnics and similar special effects, can cause serious asthma attacks and short-term irritation, necessitating production delays. Other special effects can create specific hazards. Examples are the use of lasers, electrical equipment, and chemicals to create specific effects. Camera Crew Hazards As described earlier, 5 of the 30 stunt-related fatalities were camera operators. The camera crew can often be at high risk in stunts because they are so close to the action, or even part of it. The classic example is the 1980 death of Rodney Mitchell and the injuring of 8 others during filming of an episode of the "Dukes of Hazzard". The TV camera truck carrying 12 crew members overturned during rehearsal of a car chase scene. Actual stunts are not the only risk to the camera crew. During normal filming, cameras can be located on moving vehicles, fixed wing aircraft, helicopters, scaffolding, overhead cranes, mobile elevating devices, boats, etc., which can involve risks of equipment failure, falls, collisions, and other accidents. Medical Emergencies Stunts are not the only cause of major traumatic accidental injury that can result in death and disability on a set or location. Falls, machinery accidents, falling sets, non-stunt related motor vehicle accidents, etc. can also occur. Of course, many of these accidents can result in minor injuries and in lost time. In addition, medical problems, both major and minor, can arise, and preexisting chronic medical problems can be exacerbated. Examples can include asthma attacks, heart problems, appendicitis, colds, infections, and insect stings. These types of medical problems can affect anyone on the set. The greater the number of people on the set, the greater the chances of someone becoming ill or being injured. A major factor in determining the outcome of such medical emergencies can be the quality of local medical care. Another factor can be the time to reach adequate medical facilities. Even in a major American city like New York City, this can be a problem due to traffic and slow ambulance response time. In rural areas or in many foreign countries, the local level of medical care might not meet modern medical standards, or the time to reach medical care too long. In such situations, adequate on-site medical services would be necessary. For example, during the 21-day shoot of the James Bond film, "The Living Daylights", in the Moroccan desert, the on-site medical team treated 496 patients, at least 9 of whom would have had to be immediately evacuated if they were not equipped for on-site surgery. Aside from the serious danger of loss of life or health, such injuries and illnesses can result in enormous cost increases associated with delays in production, canceled projects, possible lawsuits, costs of health care, increased workers' compensation rates, lawsuits, and, of course, budget overruns. This can affect the production company, distribu- tion company, insurance companies and everyone on the stage or location. REFERENCES Backstage. (June, 1990). Set Fatalities: It Isn't Just Performers. Backstage. Bahr, C.R. (1989). Fatalities and disabling non-fatal work-related injuries and illnesses, motion picture industry, California, 1980-1988. Division of Labor Statistics and Research, California Department of Industrial Relations. Personal communication. Conroy, C. (1988). Movie Production and Television Production Work-related Deaths, 1980-1985 from National Traumatic Occupational Fatality Database. Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown. Personal communication. Davidson, R. (December 17, 1980) Scenery and Rigging Accidents Deadly. Variety. Eisenberg, W.M. (1988). Occupational injury and illness incidence rates for select industries, 1985 and 1986. Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Personal communication. Farr, L. (March 13, 1982). TV's Daring Stunts: Are the Thrills Worth Dying For?. TV Guide. Robb, D. (March 6, 1985). Almost 600 SAG Members Hurt on the Job in Last Three Years, Variety. Robb, D. (March 5, 1987). Stuntman's Death Casts Doubt on Adequacy of Safety Guides. Variety. The Hollywood Reporter. (October 29, 1987). Emphasis on Realism Blamed for Increase in Stunt Mishaps. The Hollywood Reporter. CHAPTER 2. PLANNING FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY WHO IS RESPONSIBLE? In selecting a location, who determines if that location is too hazardous or what special precautions might be needed? Who decides if a particular scene is hazardous and needs stunt performers? Who makes the decision that a particular stunt or special effect is too risky and that a safer alternative should be used? Who has the authority to stop a stunt, special effect or other hazardous situation? These questions and similar ones are basic to the issue of safety in motion picture production. Responsibility for health and safety in motion picture and television film production can be controversial due to the complex management relationships within the industry. According to the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the employer is legally responsible for maintaining a healthy and safe workplace. The problem can be determining who is the employer, and who is an independent contractor. See Chapter 10 for detailed information on health and safety laws and regulations affecting motion picture production. The following section attempts to define the various employ- er/employee relationships within the motion picture and television film production industries, as they apply to safety. Production Company One standard type of motion picture production company is the independent. The production company is usually owned by the producer, who is also an employee of the production company. This production company then hires the actors, camera crew, director, stunt performers, preproduction crew, etc. Some of these, for example, the director and stunt coordinator, may be independent contractors, rather than salaried employees. As the employer, the production company is legally responsible for health and safety, even if the producer delegates authority to the director for day-to-day production of the film. Motion Picture Studio Motion picture studios are companies that own facilities where motion picture shooting takes place. They also distribute the films. The studio has its own employees and is responsible for their safety. Many major studios in fact have their own health and safety department. Production companies rent space from the studios to produce a film. Even though the facilities are owned by the studios, the production company is still responsible for safety conditions for its employees while working in the studio facilities. Of course, if the studio is negligent and an employee of the production company is injured, that employee could sue the studio in a third party suit (see Chapter 10). Television Studio Television production, for example soap operas, can be done in either network studios or independent television studios. In some instances the television studio is the direct employer, hiring everyone, including the producers, directors, actors, crew, special effects operator, etc. In this case the television studio is responsible for the safety of everyone involved in the filming. Since the studio is the direct employer, it would only be liable for workers' compensation from injured employees. Director The director actually supervises and controls production of the film. He or she chooses the actors and other personnel. The director is hired by the production company or television studio. As the representative of the producer, the director is responsible for ensuring safe working conditions on the set. In motion picture production, the director is usually an independent contractor, not an employee. The director is often employed by a "loan-out" company, which he or she might own. In that case, it is not the director that is hired by the production company, but the loan-out company. As an independent contractor, the director can be held liable and sued by employees of the production company (or other independent contractors) if his or her negligence causes someone to be injured. In television, the director is usually a direct employee of the television studio and thus cannot be sued by another employee. The director can however be sued by an independent contractor. Director of Photography The Director of Photography is an employee of the production company, and is responsible for determining the location of the cameras and lights. The Director of Photography may also be involved in determining the feasibility of shooting a particular scene. As such, he or she has an important role in determining the safety of the camera crew and performers in a scene. Key Grip The key grip is the person in charge of the Grip Department. On many films, the key grip is the individual responsible for the safety of sets, scaffolding, rigging, camera dollies and cranes, vehicles, and general safety procedures. Accordingly, he or she can play an important role in planning for health and safety. Stunt Performers Stunt coordinators are often independent contractors. They usually are responsible for the safe performance of the stunt and supervise everyone involved in it. As independent contractors, stunt coordinators have been sued by actors or other employees of the production company when a stunt goes wrong and someone is injured. Of course the stunt coordinator can sue the production company if he or she was injured through the negligence of the production company or its employees. Individual stunt performers are usually employees like other performers. Special Effects Operators In motion picture production, and increasingly in television production, special effects operators are independent contractors. Pyrotechnics operators have to be licensed in most states and are held legally responsible for the transportation, storage and safe use of pyrotechnics. Despite this, the producer is still responsible for the safety of his or her employees since the producer or director hired the special effects operator. Unions The many unions involved in motion picture production can play a major role in health and safety. The unions are not responsible for providing a safe workplace; that is the responsibility of the employer. Unions are legally responsible, however, for representing the interest of their members, including health and safety interests. Writing health and safety language into contracts, processing health and safety grievances, informing their members of health and safety hazards, maintaining union health and safety committees, and participating in joint labor/management health and safety initiatives are all ways in which motion picture and television unions are involved in health and safety. In many instances, the unions might have more knowledge of health and safety problems in motion picture production than do the production companies and directors. Employees Actors, camera operators, wardrobe attendants, grips, and other employees are responsible for following employer health and safety rules, OSHA regulations, and reporting hazardous conditions and accidents to their supervisors. All employees can file OSHA complaints if they believe that unsafe conditions are not being remedied, and unionized employees can also file health and safety grievances with their union. HEALTH AND SAFETY PROGRAM Since the producer (or production company) is legally responsible for the safety of all its employees, and may be subject to suit by independent contractors, it is the producer's job to set up an effective health and safety program. An adequate health and safety program will reduce the number of injuries, fatalities and illnesses during production. Aside from the serious problems of loss of life and health, injuries or illnesses can dramatically increase costs associated with delays in production, canceled projects, possible lawsuits, health care expenses, workers' compensation rates, lawsuits, and, of course, budget overruns. This can affect the production company, distribution company, insurance companies and everyone on the stage or location. This section will give some recommendations for the establishment of a health and safety program that will protect everyone on the set and yet not unnecessarily limit creativity. What is a Health and Safety Program? The establishment of a formal, working health and safety program is a proven way to prevent injuries and illnesses due to fires, accidents or overexposure to chemicals. An effective health and safety program can also reduce workers' compensation claims, lessen the likelihood of negligence suits, lower workers' compensation and liability insurance premiums, and provide a mechanism to ensure compliance with OSHA regulations. There are three basic characteristics of an effective health and safety program: 1) the active support of the producer, 2) the designation of specific individuals as responsible for the functioning of the health and safety program, and 3) defined activities to carry out the objective of reducing injuries and illnesses. Management Support The active support and involvement of management is crucial since the production company controls the budget and allocation of resources, including time, necessary to carry out a health and safety program. By law, the primary responsibility for safety rests with the employer. The most important visible step in showing management support for a health and safety program is the issuing of a policy statement by the producer. The policy statement should formally initiate the health and safety program, give its purpose, name the person responsible for the program, list program functions, request the cooperation of all personnel, and indicate the Producer's intent to support the health and safety program and its initiatives. This policy statement should be posted and distributed to all personnel. Responsibility for the Health and Safety Program The producer should hire a safety director to develop and implement the health and safety program. While major film and television studios often have full-time health and safety staffs who are responsible for ensuring safety, most smaller production companies do not. As a result, there is often confusion as to who is actually responsible for safety and there is no overall coordination of safety responsibilities. The safety director should have experience in applicable laws, fire safety, construction safety, and the special problems of motion picture production - including temporary locations, special effects, stunts, etc. For specific activities, the safety director might delegate health and safety responsibilities to specialists. For example, the stunt coordinator is usually responsible for the safety of stunts, and the special effects coordinator responsible for special effects. However, the ultimate legal responsibility for the safety of employees still rests with the producer. Health and Safety Committees One of the most effective ways to involve others in the health and safety program is through the formation of a Health and Safety Committee. The major purpose of a Health and Safety Committee is to act as a conduit between the management and employees. Information on health and safety hazards, accidents, and recommendations are channeled from employees to the producer (or his safety representative) through the Health and Safety Committee. Similarly, health and safety policy, rules, etc. are transferred from the employer to the employees via the Health and Safety Committee. In addition the Health and Safety Committee can participate in many of the activities of a health and safety program. A Health and Safety Committee should include elected representatives of all involved unions. In addition, management should appoint its own representatives. Each committee member should have specific expertise and duties. The safety director, stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator, and any other special consultants should also be members of the health and safety committee. The optimum workable size for a Health and Safety Committee is from 6-10 people. Obviously the amount of time spent on Committee activities will vary from person to person, depending on their job. The Health and Safety Committee can participate in many of the activities of a health and safety program, such as inspections, accident investigation, training, developing recommendations, record-keeping, etc. The Health and Safety Committee should also have the authority to stop filming of a scene if they think it is too dangerous, until a proper evaluation can be made. Health and Safety Committee meetings should be held at least weekly during regular working hours. Attendance should be mandatory. Formal procedures should be adopted for the meetings and careful minutes kept and posted in a conspicuous spot. Agendas should be drawn up, made public, and followed. It is crucial that all Health and Safety Committee activities be carefully documented. For example, recommendations for correction of health and safety problems should include what is to be done, by whom, when, how changes will be made, and why the recommendations are needed. All of this should be clearly stated in the minutes. This can be important in case of possible legal action, and also to document the effectiveness of the health and safety program. Health and Safety Program Activities There are a number of crucial activities that must be carried out in order to have an effective health and safety program. These include: 1) inspections, 2) accident/illness reporting and investigation, 3) hazard evaluation and control, 4) emergency planning, 5) education and training, 6) medical services and 7) monitoring and evaluation. Inspections One of the best ways to identify potential hazards in routine operations is through regular inspections. Inspections can catch such problems as improperly stored paints, frayed electrical wires, blocked exits, missing fire extinguishers, broken ladders, etc. Checklists should be developed to aid in conducting inspections. In this way, deficiencies and hazards can be identified and corrected, hopefully before they cause an accident. Accident/Illness Reporting and Investigation Most companies have some sort of reporting mechanism for serious accidents and illnesses. Investigations of causes of accidents and illnesses can result in recommendations that can prevent reoccurrences. However, cut fingers, headaches, eye irritation, and other minor problems are often ignored until more serious manifestations such as a missing finger, broken leg, fire, or other serious injury results. If these earlier, minor problems were reported, investigated and their causes corrected, then the more serious problems might have been prevented. A formal reporting mechanism for all proven and suspect occupational illnesses, accidents and spills, including near misses, should be developed. A report form, to be filled out by the supervisor, should be provided for this purpose. Accident reports should go to the safety director or Health and Safety Committee which should designate someone to investigate the cause of the problem and to recommend corrective action. These reports can also serve as a source of information for the OSHA 100 form, for workers' compensation claims, and as documentation in case of lawsuits. Hazard Evaluation and Control Both existing activities and planned activities need evaluation. Firstly, inspection of present activities and facilities (e.g. pre- production, permanent sets) and investigation of accidents can uncover existing hazards. Secondly, measures can be taken to control these hazards. Preplanning for proposed high risk activities (e.g. stunts, special effects, hazardous camera placements) is essential to prevent accidents. Preplanning will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Emergency Planning A major component of any effective health and safety program is a detailed emergency plan for each contingency. Such emergency plans are required by OSHA regulations (CFR 1910.38). Emergency plans should cover fire, emergency evacuation, accidents, emergency abort procedures and other contingencies. Filming in remote locations, in particular, requires careful planning for emergency medical care. Emergency medical care is discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Education and Training Education and training is one of the most crucial elements of a health and safety program. Anyone using chemicals should receive education about their hazards and the processes they are using, and training in how to work safely. New employees should immediately receive an orientation lecture. All employees should receive annual refresher courses. This training is required under OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard, and by many state Right-To-Know laws (see Chapter 10). Another crucial form of training is proper coaching and adequate rehearsal time for stunts and other hazardous performing situations. This will be discussed in Chapter 6. The employer should develop a health and safety manual for use by all employees. This manual can be developed in-house or by a consultant. It should include at last the following topics: 1. The administration's health and safety policy statement 2. the role and responsibilities of the health and safety committee 3. a formalized inspection program 4. safe working procedures for the various activities 5. the institution's emergency plan 6. a list of mandatory safety rules 7. the accident/illness reporting procedure 8. procedures for obtaining safety information and equipment Every employee should be issued a copy of this health and safety manual. Medical Services A medical program should be established, especially when filming on location. This program should include medical personnel on-site for everyday medical problems, and additional provisions for emergency medical care. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Monitoring and Evaluation It is essential to adequately monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of a health and safety program to ensure that the program is actually carrying out its functions of preventing injuries and illnesses, and to provide objective criteria to prove this to the management. Monitoring of a health and safety program is the day-to-day review of its progress. This ensures that inspections are being carried out, accidents and illnesses are properly reported and investigated, recommendations are actually being carried out on schedule, and finally, that health and safety training is adequate. The evaluation of a health and safety program is an overall review of the program itself to see that it is functioning properly. Often this is best done by an outside evaluator. REFERENCES McCann, M. (1986). A Health and Safety Program for Arts Institutions. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1985). How To Prepare for Workplace Emergencies (OSHA 3088 Rev.), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. CHAPTER 3. LOCATION SELECTION The initial survey of possible filming locations should involve checking for potential hazards which could influence the selection of the site or preventive measures that must be taken. This could include checking with relevant authorities or other experts concerning particular hazards (e.g. common diseases or dangerous animals in an area, or the structural stability of a building). Once hazards are identified, then it is necessary to determine the precautions that can be taken for elimination of the hazards, or whether an alternative location might be advisable. The following section lists some of the types of hazards that can commonly be found on possible location sites, along with recommendations. GENERAL HAZARDS Animals Wild animals and poisonous reptiles can be a hazard in many outdoor areas. Under certain conditions, many animals or reptiles, including poisonous snakes, can attack humans. In addition to physical harm or poisoning, some animals can carry infectious diseases (e.g. rabies). Precautions should be taken to prevent wild animals from wandering onto the set. Feeding animals and leaving food where they can get access to it can encourage their presence. Animals used in filming are discussed separately in Chapter 8. Civil Unrest Filming in areas where local wars, civil wars, terrorism or other serious unrest is going on can be very hazardous with risks of being taken hostage, being injured or killed, or simply being cut off from supplies. Newspapers can be a source of information on major conflicts, but there are hundreds of other on-going, smaller scale conflicts that rarely get into the papers but are still a hazard. The U.S. State Department or U.S. consulate in the country of your proposed location are possible sources of information. Climate The local climate can have a direct bearing on the health of a film production crew and actors. Working at high temperatures can cause heat stroke and other heat-related diseases; cold can cause frostbite. In some situations, fatalities can result. Planning is needed to prepare for these extremes. Time spent in these environments should be minimized, and avoided if possible. Heat and cold extremes are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Communicable Diseases Different localities and countries can have health risks that are native to their area. These can include diseases transmitted by insects (see Insects below), animals (see Animals), contaminated food and water (see Food and Water), or by person to person contact. The seriousness of the health risk in a particular area should be evaluated before choosing a location. For many countries, vaccinations, inoculations or medications are recommended or mandatory for certain diseases. The Location Photographer's Handbook has an excellent section on communicable diseases in different countries. This medical evaluation should be done by an appropriately trained physician. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. Communications Dependable communications are crucial, especially in emergencies. Telephones are not reliable in many countries, or even in rural areas of industrialized countries. In isolated locations, there might not even be telephones, necessitating radio communications. For emergencies and communications on location (especially for stunts and similar hazardous situations), relevant personnel should be equipped with dedicated radiophones or similar equipment. Emergency Services The quality of local emergency services (fire department, ambulance, hospital emergency rooms, etc) is an important factor in determining whether to rely on them or to make direct provision for these emergency services. This is discussed in more detail in both Chapters 6 and 9. Food and Water In many parts of the world, contaminated food and water is a major health problem, leading to traveler's diarrhea and even more serious infections. In some areas, actual testing of water might be necessary to determine if a hazard exists. If the water is potentially contaminated, local water and ice should never be used unless boiled or otherwise disinfected (e.g. chlorinated). Bottled or canned carbonated beverages and water, wine and beer are recommended, and tea, coffee or ice should be made with boiled water. Drinking and food containers that have had possibly contaminated water in them should be adequately washed with soap and boiled water. Raw food (salads, vegetables, shellfish, fish, etc.), unpasteurized dairy products, and insufficiently cooked meat should be avoided because of possible bacteria, parasites or other hazardous organisms. Insects Insect bites can vary from being a nuisance to life-threatening if a person is allergic. In addition, many insects can carry contagious diseases (e.g. malaria, Lyme Disease, sleeping sickness, etc.). In areas where the more deadly of these diseases are common, alternate filming locations would be recommended. Precautions such as insect repellents, mosquito nets, protective clothing, etc. are suggested for filming in situations where insects are a problem. Poisonous Plants Many rural areas are covered with poisonous plants such as poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, etc. Personnel working in these areas should be trained in the recognition of local poisonous plants which they might encounter with the use of photographs. Protective clothing - including long sleeves, shoes, and long pants -should be worn in areas with many poisonous plants. Power Film production uses enormous amounts of power, often amounting to hundreds of amps at a time. Insufficient power or a power failure can be hazardous if safety devices or equipment run on electricity. A qualified electrician should be contacted to ascertain whether local power sources are adequate, and whether alternate sources of power must be provided. See the Electricity section of Chapter 5 for more details. Transportation How convenient, reliable and safe is local transportation? In urban areas, especially in industrial countries, this might not be a problem. However, in isolated areas and in many countries, reliable transportation is not a given, and production companies might have to provide their own transportation, especially for emergencies. Travel to remote locations via helicopter or small planes has higher accident rates than commercial travel, as is typified by the 1985 helicopter death of Rich Holley while enroute to Alaska for the filming of "Runaway Train". See the discussion of helicopters in Chapter 8. Weather Local weather conditions should be evaluated. If storms, tornados, hurricanes, flash floods, etc. are a possible risk at the time you will be filming, then it would be important to keep in contact with meteorological forecasts. In some instances, it might be advisable to pick another location or time. Certain locations like dry river beds and canyons might be at high risk of flash floods and should be avoided during rainy seasons. Lightning can be a major risk on location during thunderstorms. Even minor storms, rain, etc. can create hazards during filming. SPECIAL HAZARDS This section discusses some hazards which are particular to specific types of locations. Buildings Much filming takes place in buildings, which can present special risks, particularly in old or abandoned buildings. Structural stability: Old or abandoned buildings should have the stability of ceilings, walls, floors, stairways, etc. checked by a licensed engineer to determine the building's safety. Buildings in use should have certificates of occupancy filed with the buildings department (or equiva- lent). Asbestos: Suspect materials (especially pipe and furnace insulation, sprayed ceilings, etc.) should be analyzed for asbestos content. If asbestos is present, then it would have to be removed or enclosed by licensed asbestos contractors (which can be very expensive). Otherwise, an alternative site should be chosen. Asbestos-containing materials should not be handled by crew members. No one should be exposed to asbestos, since asbestos inhalation can cause cancer and asbestosis (permanent lung scarring). Lead paint: Old, flaking paint in buildings usually contains lead and could be a risk if it becomes pulverized by filming activities and becomes airborne where it could be inhaled. The loose paint should be vacuumed with a HEPA (high efficiency) vacuum cleaner and disposed of as toxic waste, according to local regulations. Only trained personnel should do this. Chemicals: Many abandoned buildings, especially warehouses, can contain waste chemicals. These can present both health and fire hazards and should be handled only by experts. Community hazardous materials (HazMat) emergency response teams should be contacted for assistance, if they exist locally. These are usually part of the Fire Department. Biological hazards: Molds, contaminated pigeon droppings, etc. can cause allergic reactions and other illnesses by skin contact and inhalation. Filming areas should be cleaned and disinfected if such biological contamination exists. Contact the local Health Department for assistance. City Streets City streets as a filming location can present a variety of health and safety problems. The physical condition of the streets (e.g. potholes, cellars under sidewalks) can create hazards for car chase scenes, for example. Electrical wiring, telephone poles, etc. can interfere with camera cranes or other equipment. For example, an electrician was killed during the 1988 filming of "Men Don't Leave" in Baltimore when a 50-foot tall rainmaking machine struck an overhead electrical wire. Air pollution in cities can also present health hazards to susceptible individuals, especially those involved in strenuous activities. This could be a problem especially during air pollution alerts. Deserts Filming in deserts can present serious health problems. Extremely high temperatures during the day can cause a variety of heat stress diseases (see Chapter 5 for more detailed information). This can be compounded by exposure to the intense, direct sunlight and dehydration problems. Low temperatures at night can require heating and suitable clothing. Another hazard associated with many deserts is severe sandstorms. The scarcity of water and need for large amounts of drinking water can complicate supply problems. Foreign Countries All of the problems discussed in this chapter can apply to filming in foreign countries, particularly in underdeveloped countries. In addition, varying customs and mores can present potentials for intercultural conflicts which can result in misunderstanding and even violence. Mountains Mountainous locations present a variety of hazards. The physical nature of mountains can result in accessibility problems as a result of poor roads. In many instances even accessibility by helicopters can be hazardous due to uncertain and violent air current patterns. Falls, snow and rock slides, animals, storms, and even individuals getting lost are special hazards which need careful planning and local expert knowledge of conditions to provide a safe filming location. Water Filming on ponds, lakes, rivers, swamps, oceans, etc. presents a variety of special problems. Underwater hazards such as rocks, sunken ships, sudden drop-offs, swift currents and undertows, plant life, poisonous snakes, reptiles, sharks, etc. can endanger swimmers, divers, and even boats in some instances. Local authorities should be contacted to ascertain known hazards, and surveys by divers of contemplated filming locations should be conducted. Hazards should be removed or marked (unless needed for filming). Still water such as ponds, swamps or bogs should be analyzed for possible water contamination. If the contamination can't be removed, another site should be chosen. Potential upstream problems such as dams, danger of flash floods, chemical plants dumping sites, etc. should also be evaluated. In the ocean in particular, major storms can present risks to even large boats and particular attention to weather predictions and storm tracking is essential. Even small squalls on lakes could present problems for small boats or people in the water. Water temperature, especially in cold weather, can be a serious problems for people in the water due to the risk of hypothermia, and can be a factor in choosing time of filming, in addition to other precautions while filming. Small, controlled ponds located on studio property should be kept drained and filled immediately prior to use. Larger ponds inside studio property should have the water analyzed with written results available no more than 48 hours prior to use. If hazardous contaminants are present, steps should be taken to eliminate the hazard and the water retested with results available not less than 24 hours prior to use. If the contaminant cannot be removed, another location should be sought. See the discussion of filming on water in Chapter 5. REFERENCES Haas, K. (1990). The Location Photographers Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. CHAPTER 4. PREPRODUCTION Preproduction involves constructing the sets and props. They can be made in permanent scene shops or studios and then transported to the filming site, or actually constructed on site. They can consist of full-scale sets or miniature models for special effects filming. CARPENTRY Constructing sets from wood can involve the use of various woods, plywood, particle board, and plexiglas. A variety of hand and power tools are employed. Flammable and toxic contact adhesives are used in laminating formica and other materials. Painting is discussed in a later section of the chapter. Hardwood dusts can cause nasal cancer, and other respiratory problems. Cutting, sanding, etc. of plywood and particle boards results in the release of formaldehyde, which can cause respiratory irritation and allergies, and causes nasal cancer in animals. Similarly, plexiglass generates methyl methacrylate, also an irritant and sensitizer, when machined. Hand tools, powered hand tools, and fixed woodworking machines are all commonly used. These tools and machines all have safety hazards if not used properly. The following are some basic carpentry safety rules: 1. Everyone should wear safety goggles or safety glasses. A face shield may be worn over these but a face shield by itself does not adequately protect the eyes. Eye glasses are not sufficient protection. 2. NIOSH-approved toxic dust masks should be available and used when necessary. 3. Loose clothing, work gloves, neckties and dangling jewelry should not be worn around powered tools or machines. 4. The work area should always be kept clean, swept, and well-lit. Floors should be free of all debris, slippery materials, or water. 5. Never leave any machine that is running unattended. Turn off the power, and wait until the machine isn't moving before leaving the work area. 6. Safety helmets must be available to all persons working in or visiting a designated "Hard Hat Area". They must be worn at all times while in the area. 7. Hard-soled shoes or boots must be worn at all times within construction, set striking or maintenance areas; while working with heavy objects; or on location. For working on raised structures or conveyances, work shoes or boots with gripping soles should be worn. Rubber-soled boots or shoes should be worn around electrical hazards. Woodworking Machines 1. Machines should be secured. Belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets and gears must be guarded. V-belts and chain drives must be completely enclosed; if belts, shafting, couplings, keys, collars and clutches are located seven or less feet above the ground, these must be guarded from contact. 2. Machine guards should be securely attached to machines, and conform to existing standards, or be specifically designed for the particular machine. 3. Every machine needs an accessible stop switch. 4. Machines should have a master switch. It should be possible to lock the machine in the "off" position. 5. Cutting tools must be maintained and sharp. 6. Scraps and waste should be kept clear of the working surface of the machine. 7. All woodworking machines that generate considerable quantities of wood dust should be equipped with dust collectors that exhaust to the outside. Portable dust collectors are available that can be connected to several machines at once. 8. Hearing protection may be necessary since noise levels from machinery can be very high. A good rule of thumb is that hearing protection is called for when there is difficulty hearing someone one to two feet away. Powered Hand Tools 1. All electric cords must be in good condition, and inspected and maintained. Special precautions must be taken if the work is damp, or contains flammables or combustibles. 2. All guards, shields, and attachments should be in place and functioning. 3. Hand held electrical power tools must have a quick-release (dead-man) control that shuts off power when control switch is released. 4. The frame of electrical tools must be grounded and double-insulated, and thus labeled. 5. Pneumatic tools must be securely fastened to the hose. Additionally, there must be a tool retainer that restrains the attachment. 6. A muzzle should protect autofeed equipment, such as staplers, and nailers, from movement unless there is contact at the work surface. Hand Tools 1. All hand tools must be maintained in good condition, and replaced if damaged. 2. Tools should be stored safely and neatly. There should be procedures for the control of tools. For further information on the hazards and precautions for woodworking machines, powered hand tools and hand tools, see the data sheets prepared by the Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). These are available from the Center for Safety in the Arts. Scaffolding Scaffolds are used in the construction of sets, as well as for camera and lighting supports. 1. OSHA has strict regulations for scaffolding (CFR 1910.29 and 1910.29) 2. Scaffolds should be erected and dismantled by experienced personnel using the proper equipment. 3. Scaffolds should be constructed so they can support up to 4 times the maximum intended load. 4. Scaffolds should follow the Ontario 3 to 1 rule, meaning that the maximum height of a free-standing scaffold should be 3 times the narrowest side of the base. OSHA regulations allow a 4 to 1 ratio. 5. Scaffolds higher than 50 feet require approved plans provided and signed by a professional engineer. 6. Guardrails and toeboards are recommended on all scaffolds, but are required if higher than 8 feet. If the scaffold is less than 45 inches wide, then there must be guardrails on scaffolds over 4 feet. The rail should have a minimum height of 42 inches, and the toeboards should be 4 inches high. 7. Rolling scaffolds (towers) must have proper cross and horizontal bracing, and at least two of four casters or wheels must be swivel type with locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds unless there is complete control of the path, the path is smooth and level, there are no overhead obstructions (especially power lines) and the workers are given time to tie down or leave. 8. The location of the scaffold, including foundation area, overhead dangers, and possible public interference must be under control of production company. 9. All towers should be plumbed and leveled. 10. Platforms should have properly decked plywood, as needed. 11. Access on scaffolding should be by properly secured ladders and proper climbing methods. The frames can be climbed, but not the braces. 12. Equipment being ferried up and down the scaffolding must be properly secured. All equipment on top must be secured to the main framework. WELDING, CUTTING AND BRAZING Welding has both health hazards and fire hazards. The metal fumes generated by the welding processes may be toxic (e.g. lead, nickel, cadmium, etc). Zinc and copper-containing metals (e.g. galvanized steel) can cause a flu-like illness called metal fume fever. In addition, arc welding processes can produce highly toxic ozone and nitrogen dioxide gas, as well as large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, which can cause eye damage and skin cancer. Safety Hazards and Fire Prevention OSHA regulations for Welding, Cutting and Brazing are found in CFR 1910.252. Paragraphs (d) and (e) of this section of the OSHA regulations are concerned with fire prevention and protection, and with ventilation. 1. A general statement of fire prevention precautions is found in CFR 1910.252(d)(2)(xv): "Cutting or welding shall be permitted only in areas that are or have been made fire safe. Within the confines of an operating plant or building, cutting and welding should preferably be done in a specific area designated for such work, such as a maintenance shop or a detached outside location. Such areas should be of noncombustible or fire-resistant construction, essentially free of combustible and flammable contents, and suitably segregated from adjacent areas." 2. OSHA requires a fire watch when welding in areas where other than minor fires could occur, if appreciable combustible material is found or exposed through openings within 35 feet of the welding, or if combustible materials adjacent to the opposite side of a metal wall or partition could ignite due to conduction or radiation. Fire watchers shall have extinguishing equipment available, and shall be trained. The fire watch shall be main- tained for at least a half hour after welding has stopped. 3. Administrative measures required by OSHA include establishing specific areas for normal cutting and welding, and establishing procedures for welding and cutting in other areas. An individual should be designated by management to be responsible for authorizing welding and cutting in areas not specifically designated for it. This individual shall inspect the area and designate precautions before authorizing such welding or cutting. 4. Cutters and welders should be suitably trained. It is recommended that at least one welder be certified by the American Welding Society. 5. Areas designated for welding, cutting and brazing should be free of flammable or combustible gases, liquids or vapors. If this is impossible, then these materials must be shielded from heat or sparks. Welding in the vicinity of painting operations can also create fire and health hazards to others in the area, as well as to welders. 6. Welding must be separated from all combustible materials which could be exposed to sparks flying through open doors, windows, cracks in walls or floors. Walls, floors, and all furnishings should be noncombustible or furnished with fire-resistant shields or guards. Floors with combustible shavings, sawdust, should be swept clean for 35 feet. Combustibles within 35 feet must be removed or protected with flameproof coverings or metal shields. 7. Welding, cutting, brazing or hot work may be done only on materials that are thoroughly cleaned of any flammable or combustible material. 8. Gas cylinders must be stored according to the regulations stated in section II-A on Compressed Gases. Acetylene must not be stored at a pressure greater than 15 psi gauge or 30 psi absolute, since above this pressure, acetylene may become unstable. Indoor storage of fuel gas may not exceed 2,000 cubic feet or 300 pounds. 9. Fire extinguishing equipment must be available and maintained. 10. Arc welders should wear clean, fire-resistant gloves and closed, long-sleeved clothing. 11. The welding machine for electric arc welding must be kept dry during use. Welding cable should be spread out during work, and neatly stored afterwards. The ground lead must be attached securely to the work. Any damaged cable must be replaced. There should be regular inspection of cable. Connectors between ground and electrode cables must be specifically designed for that purpose. Spliced cables should never be within ten feet of the operator. Welders should never coil cables around their bodies. Electrode holders not in use should be stored separate from conductive objects. Health Hazards The specific health hazards in welding, cutting and brazing depend on the type of fluxes, metals and coatings, the location of the process, the duration of exposure, and the ventilation. Certain materials require special respiratory protection and ventilation. See Table 5-1 for specific requirements. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 5-1. Respirator and Ventilation Requirements During Welding and Cutting. Material Confined Space Indoors Outdoors Lead A or B A C Zinc A or B A - Cadmium* A or B A or B C Beryllium* A & B A & B A & B Mercury* A or B A or B C Fluorine* A or B - - Stainless steel A A A A = Mechanical local exhaust ventilation by means of hoods or booths having sufficient airflow to maintain a velocity of at least 100 linear feet per minute. B = NIOSH approved supplied-air respirator. C = NIOSH approved respiratory equipment * Only if air contamination under the most adverse conditions are within acceptable concentrations as defined by CFR 1910.1000 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. For metals not listed in the table above, there must be mechanical ventilation when there is less than 10,000 cubic feet of space per welder, if the ceiling is less than 16 feet high, or if the work is being done in an enclosed space. 2. Air velocity must be at least 2000 cubic feet per minute per welder, unless there are hoods or booths for each welder that maintain a velocity of 100 linear feet per minute. Otherwise, approved, supplied-air respirators must be used. 3. When respirators are used, OSHA requires a written respirator program that includes the selection of respirators, training in use and fit testing. (CFR 1910.36 and 1910.37) 4. Goggles, or helmets with eye protection, and hand shields must be used during welding and cutting. 5. Individuals in nearby areas must also be protected or shielded from heat, sparks, and ultraviolet rays. NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations gives more detailed information. PAINTING Paints, lacquers, varnishes, dye solutions and other coatings are used for scenic painting. These can be solvent-based and water-based. Even water-based paints may still contain 5% or more solvents to help dissolve resin components. Some pigments in paints are toxic if inhaled or ingested, for example lead chromate (chrome yellow). Similarly, many dyes are hazardous by inhalation, and sometimes by skin contact. Spraying of paints and lacquers can result in inhalation of spray mists which can contain organic solvents if the material sprayed is solvent-based. Fine particulates from the sprayed substance can remain in the air for hours before settling. Further, they can penetrate deep into the lungs. Both solvents and propellants (e.g. butane, propane) in spray cans are fire hazards. Powdered Dyes and Pigments Most dyes dissolve in water, although some dissolve in solvents, usually alcohols. The major concern with powdered dyes and pigments is inhalation of the powder. Skin contact can also be a hazard with some dyes, although to a lesser degree. 1. Use liquid dyes and paints whenever possible to reduce risk of inhaling dusts. 2. Water-based dyes are preferred to alcohol-based dyes because of solvent hazards. If alcohol must be used, denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol should be used instead of the more hazardous methyl alcohol. 3. Dye and other powders can be mixed into a concentrated solution or paste inside a glove box (e.g. cardboard box with a glass or plexiglass top, and armholes in the ends). This eliminates the need for wearing a toxic dust respirator and messy cleanup procedures. The paste or concentrated dye solution can then be diluted for use as needed. 4. If a glove box is not used for mixing powders, then a NIOSH-approved respirator with a toxic dusts and mists filter should be worn. 5. Do not use bleach to remove dye stains from skin, since bleach is a skin irritant and bleach can decompose dyes to more hazardous chemicals. 6. Spraying bleach onto scenery to decolorize dyes should be done inside a spray booth, or while wearing a full-face, air-purifying respirator with acid gas canister (or half-face respirator with acid gas cartridges and goggles). Eye protection is needed. Solvents and Thinners Solvents are used to dissolve and mix with oils, resins, varnishes and inks; to remove paint, varnish, lacquers; to clean brushes, tools, and even hands. Almost all organic solvents are poisonous if swallowed or inhaled in sufficient quantity, and most can cause dermatitis after sufficient skin contact. High concentrations of most solvents can cause narcosis (dizziness, nausea, fatigue, loss of coordination, coma). Long-term exposure to solvents can cause brain damage, and depending on the solvent, damage to other organs such as the liver, kidneys, heart and reproductive system. In addition to the health hazards, most solvents are flammable or combustible. Flammable liquids have flash points below 100 F (38 C), meaning that enough vapors can collect at the surface of the volatile liquid at normal temperatures to cause a fire if a source of ignition such as a spark or flame is present. Extremely flammable liquids, such as acetone, have flash points below 20 F (-7 C) and are even a more serious fire hazard. Combustible liquids have flash points of 100 F (38 C) or above, meaning that the temperature of the liquid has to be raised above this temperature for sufficient vapors to collect at the liquid's surface to ignite. Note that even combustible materials can ignite at room temperature if they are sprayed. Thus spraying effectively converts a combustible liquid into a flammable one. 1. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on solvents (and all other products). 2. Use the safest solvents possible. For example, mineral spirits (paint thinner), especially the odorless type, is less toxic than aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene and xylene. Avoid chlorinated solvents (methylene chloride, perchloroethylene, etc.) whenever possible because most chlorinated hydrocarbons cause cancer in animals, and are probable carcinogens in humans. 3. Avoid skin contact with solvents. In particular, do not use solvents to clean paint off hands. Baby oil or mineral oil is a good substitute. Use gloves to prevent skin contact. 4. Use solvents with adequate ventilation. According to OSHA standards (CFR 1910.1000), solvent vapors concentrations must be kept below the applicable Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). In order to have an adequate safety factor, I would recommend keeping vapor concentrations below 1/10 of the OSHA PEL (or Threshold Limit Value, if lower). Dilution ventilation (e.g. window exhaust fan) can be used with small amounts of solvents or solvents that are not highly toxic. Otherwise use local exhaust ventilation (e.g. enclosed hood, spray booth, slot hood). 5. OSHA regulations covering the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids are found in CFR 1910.106. 6. Keep the minimum amount of solvents practical on hand, and purchase in smallest useful container size. Large amounts of solvents or solvent-containing materials should be stored in an approved flammable storage cabinet. 7. Keep containers closed. Do not allow smoking, open flames or other sources of ignition near solvents. 8. Areas where flammable solvents are transferred should be separated from other areas and provided with proper ventilation. 9. There should be emergency procedures for spill control. 10. There should be a Class B fire extinguisher of at least 12B rating located within 10-25 feet of where flammable solvents are stored, and within 50 feet of areas where flammable solvents are used. Paints and Other Coatings Flammable lacquers, varnishes and shellacs have both serious fire and health hazards. The flammable lacquers are the most hazardous because they usually contain more toxic solvents such as toluene and xylene. Denatured alcohol found in most shellacs and for diluting dyes is less hazardous; methyl alcohol-based shellacs should never be used. Most solvent-based paints, sealers, primers, etc. are combustible, and are not a serious fire hazard at normal temperatures unless sprayed. The most common solvent in combustible paints is mineral spirits, which is a moderate health hazard. If the paints contain substantial amounts of toluene, xylene or aromatic naphtha, then they are more hazardous and may be absorbed though the skin. Aerosol spray paints are always considered extremely flammable because they usually contain propane or other flammable gases under pressure. Water-based paints and other coatings contain small amounts (typically 5-10%) of certain organic solvents that help dissolve the resin and are soluble in water. The least toxic ingredients, by inhalation, of these solvents are propylene glycol, ethylene glycol, and diethylene glycol. The last two are toxic by ingestion. Glycol ethers are more hazardous, with a major concern being reproductive problems in both men and women. Many water-based paints and coatings contain small amounts of ammonia or amines which are skin, eye and respiratory irritants. Water-based paints with mercury preservatives are also hazardous by inhalation and should be avoided. 1. Whenever possible replace solvent-based paints, coatings, etc. with water-based substitutes to eliminate the fire hazard and greatly reduce health hazards. 2. Solvent-based paints and coatings should be mixed in front of a slot hood or inside a spray booth. If powdered pigments or other powders are added that are easily airborne and inhaled, wear a toxic dust respirator. 3. Provide adequate dilution ventilation when brushing or rolling solvent-based paints and other coatings, or spray painting outside a spray booth. Powerful exhaust fans can provide this. These should be left operating until the solvents have evaporated. 4. Large scale coating operations with solvent-containing materials (several gallons at a time) can overload normal dilution ventilation systems. For this type of operation: * Apply the coating at the end of the work day to minimize exposure to personnel. * All personnel not involved in the coating operation should be out of the area. * Dilution ventilation should be provided and left operating all night to remove solvent vapors. * Carefully check to ensure all possible sources of ignition are removed and other fire precautions observed. * Personnel involved in large-scale coating operations should wear positive pressure, air-supplied respirators (e.g. self-contained breathing apparatus). 5. All spraying with flammable or combustible solvents should be done in designated spraying areas or inside explosion-proof spray booths. These spraying areas or booths should comply with the OSHA regulations for spraying finishing using flammable and combustible liquids (CFR 1910.107). 6. If aerosol spray paints are used at locations other than designated spraying areas (e.g. on the finished set), then special precautions should be taken to ensure all sources of sparks, flames, static electricity, hot metal, etc. are removed and provide local exhaust ventilation. 7. When spraying paints or other coatings containing solvents outside a spray booth (including latex paints containing small amounts of solvents), wear a NIOSH-approved, air-purifying respirator with organic vapor cartridges and paint spray (or toxic dusts and mists) filters. If there are no solvents present, only a dusts and mists filter is needed. PROPS AND MODELS Props and miniature models used in motion picture production can be made of a variety of materials, including wood, metal, plastics, etc. The hazards of working in wood and metal were considered earlier. This section will discuss the hazards of plastics and adhesives used for props and models. Plastics Resins Plastics consist of long, chain-like molecules made from smaller molecules (called monomers) linked together. Plastics resins are very hazardous because they involve working with the monomers which are often highly toxic. In addition, toxic solvents, fillers, catalysts, etc. can be used. Polyurethane two-component systems, including paints and expandable foams (AB foams), consist of a polyol component and an isocyanate component. The major hazard from these polyurethane resins is from inhalation of the isocyanates. Isocyanates are strong skin, eye and respiratory irritants and large exposures can cause chemical pneumonia. Chronic or repeated exposure at very low levels (parts per billion in air) can cause severe acute and chronic asthma. TDI (toluene diisocyanate) and MDI (4,4'-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate or 4,4'-diphenylmethane diisocyanate) are the most toxic since they are the most volatile. However, when sprayed, all isocyanates are extremely hazardous. Polyurethane two-component systems can also contain other toxic chemicals, including solvents and irritating amine catalysts. Polyester resin systems (fiberglass resins) consist of a resin, which contains a polyester polymer dissolved in styrene, and a hardener, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEK peroxide), dissolved in dimethyl phthalate. Styrene is a strong respiratory irritant and narcotic, and requires very good local exhaust ventilation. MEK peroxide is a strong skin irritant and can cause blindness from even a few drops splashed in the eye. It is also heat and shock sensitive if the solvent evaporates. The hardener should never be mixed with acetone, since it will react with acetone to form the explosive acetone peroxide. Epoxy systems include resins, glues and paints. The epoxy resin itself usually contains diglycidyl ethers which are skin, eye and respiratory irritants and suspect carcinogens. The epoxy hardeners can include amines, anhydrides and several other chemicals. These chemicals cause skin irritation and allergies. Other plastic resins are used for props, for example in making break- away glass. Fire hazards from the solvents can be a particular hazards (see Solvents and Thinners section). 1. Polyurethane foam resins should not be sprayed due to their extreme toxicity, except in a spray booth. If absolutely essential, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) should be worn if a spray booth is not available, or the piece is too large. SCBA should only be worn by personnel trained in its use. 2. Casting or hand layup with polyurethane foam, polyester or epoxy resins should take place inside a walk-in spray booth. The operator should wear a full-face, air-purifying respirator with organic vapor canister. 3. Large scale application of plastics resins outside a spray booth requires excellent dilution ventilation and air-supplied respirators. 4. Wear gloves, goggles, and protective clothing when working with plastics resins. Goggles or full-face respirator are needed especially when mixing polyester resin because of the risk of blindness if the MEK peroxide hardener is splashed in the eyes. 5. See Solvents and Thinners section for other precautions when working with plastics resins. Fabricating Plastics The hazards involved in working with finished plastics come mostly from the methods used to work the plastic. Burning of plastic can result in the release of carbon monoxide and other toxic gases from the decomposition of the plastic. This can also occur during sawing or machining. Heating of plastics can result in the release of unreacted monomer, plasticizers or other chemicals which are trapped in the plastic. The glues and cements used to bond plastics often contain toxic solvents and plastic monomers. See the Adhesives section for detailed information. 1. Sanding, cutting and other heating of finished polyurethane foam causes decomposition of the foam to yield toxic gases such as hydrogen cyanide. Working in a spray booth or wearing SCBA is recommended. 2. Celastic is a nitrocellulose plastic that can often be used as a substitute for polyurethane AB foams. Hand layup with celastic and acetone can be done inside a spray booth or with dilution ventilation. Although acetone is only slightly toxic, it is extremely flammable, and all OSHA requirements for handling flammable liquids must be strictly observed, especially with respect to electrical wiring and equipment. If dilution ventilation is not adequate protection due to having to work very close to the acetone, then wearing an air-purifying respirator with organic vapor cartridges is recommended. 3. Styrofoam carving, cutting and other finishing processes do not present major hazards. Dilution ventilation suitable for solvent use will exhaust any toxic gases produced by decomposition of the styrofoam. When using hot wire cutting, use lowest temperature possible to minimize decomposition. If large amounts of dust are generated, then wearing a NIOSH-approved, toxic dust respirator is recommended. 4. When cutting, sanding or otherwise creating dust when fabricating plastics, frequent vacuuming should be done to remove accumulated dust. 5. If respiratory protection is used, make sure you have the correct cartridges and filters. For polyvinyl chloride (PVC) use acid gas cartridge plus dusts and mists filter; for plexiglas use organic vapor cartridge, plus dusts and mists filter. Adhesives Many adhesives contain solvents that are toxic by inhalation and skin contact. For example, rubber cements and contact adhesives usually contain n-hexane, which can cause peripheral neuropathy (damage to nerves of hands, feet, arms, legs). Glues used in furniture repair, model making or leatherwork often contain hazardous solvents like toluene and naphthas. These are hazardous by skin contact and inhalation, and most are flammable. See Solvents and Thinners section for more information. Some adhesives work by polymerization of hazardous monomers. Epoxy glues were discussed under plastics resins. Acrylic plastic glues can contain methyl methacrylate, and instant bonding glues contain cyanoacrylates. These ingredients are skin sensitizers and irritants, and the vapors may cause headaches, loss of appetite and low blood pressure. Cyanoacrylate glues can bond skin. Woodworking glues range from polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion glues that are water-based, to hazardous resorcinol formaldehyde resins that release formaldehyde gas. Formaldehyde is a skin, eye and respiratory irritant and sensitizer, and is a suspected human carcinogen. Other wood glues may contain toxic phenol preservatives. Aerosol adhesives are sprayed, resulting in the inhalation of rubber or plastic particles, along with the inhalation of various solvent and propellent ingredients. N-hexane, which can cause nerve damage, is a common solvent used in these spray formulations. Both solvents and aerosol propellants are fire hazards. 1. Substitute the safest glue possible. 2. Use solvent-based glues in a well-ventilated space (e.g. window exhaust fan). If large amounts are being used, local exhaust ventilation such as a slot exhaust hood is necessary. Placing the work table up against a window with an exhaust fan at work level is also effective. Eliminate all sources of ignition such as flames, sparks or lit cigarettes. 3. Spray adhesives could be used outdoors for occasional projects, or in a sparkproof spray booth that exhausts to the outside. 4. See also precautions under Solvents and Thinners. REFERENCES American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1990). Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work Environment. ACGIH, Cincinnati. American National Standards Institute. (1983). ANSI Z49.1-1983. Safety in Welding and Cutting. ANSI, New York. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. (1988). Infograms on Abrasive Wheels, Chain Saws, Hand tools, Materials Handling, Power Hand tools, Welding, Woodworking. CCOHS, Hamilton. Clark, N., Cutter, T., and McGrane, J. (1984). Ventilation. Lyons and Burford Books, New York. Industrial Hygiene Subcommittee, Alliance of American Insurers. (1986). Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, 6th Edition. Alliance of American Insurers, Chicago. McCann, M. (1979). Artist Beware: The Hazards and Precautions in Working With Art and Craft Materials. Watson-Guptill Publications, New York. National Fire Protection Association. (1962). NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations. NFPA, Quincy, MA. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For Construction, 29 CFR Part 1926. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. Patty, F. (Editor). (1982). Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volume Two (3 Parts), Third Edition. Interscience Publishers, New York. Rossol, M. (1986). Stage Fright: Health and Safety in the Theater. Allsworth Press, New York. CHAPTER 5. ON LOCATION This chapter will discuss the hazards of filming on location. This will include general fire and life safety hazards on location, hazards to the camera crew (cameras, lights, scaffolding and rigging), costume and makeup hazards, and environmental hazards (heat, cold, water). Many of these hazards and the appropriate precautions are also applicable to permanent studios. High risk filming situations, such as special effects and stunts, will be dicussed in subsequent chapters. GENERAL FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY A permanent film studio has to meet a variety of fire and life safety codes and regulations in order to obtain a certificate of occupancy. Special permits for particular activities, for example involving pyrotech- nics special effects, may also be required. Temporary filming locations have to obtain a variety of permits for each location (see Chapter 10). Many of the recommendations mentioned here are based on the California State Fire Marshal's Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. More complete details on fire regulations can be found in appropriate Uniform Fire Codes. Access Routes and Exits Access routes and exitways must be clearly defined by agreement with the local Fire Department. They must be kept clear in order to allow emergency vehicles to gain access to the various parts of the location, and to allow people on the location to escape quickly and easily in case of emergency. Routine inspections should be made to ensure that props, camera equipment, sets, etc. do not block agreed upon access and emergency escape routes. A particular problem can occur when filming takes place inside an occupied building. Care must be taken to not block corridors, stairways and other exits with equipment and electrical cables. Particular recommendations include: 1. Exit signs should be posted in rooms or areas containing more than 50 people. Exit lighting should be provided. 2. Maximum travel distance from any point to an exterior exit door, horizontal exit, exit passageway or enclosed staircase should be 150 feet if the building is not sprinklered, and 200 feet if the building is sprinklered throughout. 3. Exits to streets or public passways must be continuous and unobstructed by fences, walls, vehicles, etc. 4. Electrical cables passing through exit doorways and corridors must be maintained at the sides in order to minimize obstruction. 5. If normal exits are obstructed for filming reasons, alternate exits must be provided. Fire Hazards A fire starts when something that can burn is ignited in the presence of oxygen. Around a filming location, materials that may burn include dry vegetation, sawdust and wood dust from preproduction, combustible tents and other structures, fuels, flammable and combustible liquids, spray paints, and many other sources. Oxygen is always available in the air, but compressed oxygen cylinders can be a source of extra oxygen which greatly increases the fire risk. Finally, sources of ignition can include sparks from electrical equipment, hot lighting equipment and other heated surfaces, welding and cutting operations, smoking, static electricity, etc. Prevention predominantly consists of keeping materials that burn from coming in contact with sources of ignition. Combustible Materials Adequate housekeeping is the major strategy for controlling ordinary combustibles like wood scraps, wood dust, paper, rags, etc. so they are not a possible fuel source. 1. All floors, closets, platforms, etc. should be kept clear of combustible materials and rubbish. 2. Combustibles, waste materials and rubbish should be stored in approved containers or disposed of properly. 3. Keep unnecessary dry vegetation at least 20 feet from buildings. 4. Oily rags, paint rags, oily waste, or similar materials subject to spontaneous combustion should be kept in approved oily waste cans. These should be in each area where such materials are used and stored, and emptied daily. Placing these materials in buckets of water will also achieve safe storage. 5. Keep stored combustible materials away from exits and fire equipment. 6. Combustible materials used in filming such as sawdust or shavings on floors or ground must be made flame resistant or, when approved by the fire department, kept adequately damp. 7. Combustible tents should be flame-proofed. Flammable Liquids and Gases 1. Empty, liquefied petroleum gas tanks may be changed on location, but refueling must be done at authorized refueling stations or commercial refueling vendors. 2. All propane cylinders must be secured to prevent damage to the cylinder, or to personnel, from falling cylinders. This includes those on catering trucks, and ones used for fire special effects. 3. Propane heaters and other equipment must be the specified size, hoses and fittings approved for LPG service, and appliances and fittings maintained in good condition. 4. Propane heaters must not be used in tents. 5. Only approved flammable liquid safety containers with a maximum capacity of 5 gallons should be used. 6. Transferring flammable liquids and fuels should be done in a properly protected and ventilated area. 7. Refueling operations should obey the following guidelines: * Refueling operations must be attended and operated by trained personnel. * Turn off all equipment being refueled. * Fuel transfer nozzles must be held by direct hand pressure. * No smoking within 50 feet. * The refueler vehicle should exhibit a sign stating "Flammable and No Smoking" when on location. * The vehicle should carry at least one 2A-10BC fire extinguisher. Chapter 4 on Preproduction contains more information on the storage and use of flammable and combustible liquids. Fire and Other Sources of Ignition 1. Fire should not be present near combustible materials, unless the materials are part of the filming, and the have been flame proofed. 2. Equipment used to create fires should be maintained in good condition. 3. Fire extinguishing equipment and trained personnel must be present when fire effects are used. See the Fire section of Chapter 7 for more information on the use of fires during filming. 4. Smoking must be prohibited in all places where combustible or flammable materials are stored or used. This includes: * in areas where fuels, flammable or combustible liquids are stored or used * around flammable gases * around spray painting or finishing operations * where pyrotechnics or explosives are stored, mixed or used * inside tents 5. Sparks or hot surfaces such as lighting equipment, engine mufflers, and catalytic converters on vehicles should not be used near combustibles or flammable liquids or gases. Exhaust spark arrestors may be required for gasoline-powered engines. 6. Sources of static electricity should not be present around flammable liquids or gases. MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY Automobiles, trucks, boats, airplanes, helicopters and other methods of transportation are common on film locations. Hazards from these can include traffic accidents, parking problems, use in filming, and refueling risks. Refueling was discussed in the section on General Fire and Life Safety earlier in this chapter. The use of vehicles in filming will be discussed in subsequent chapters. This section will discuss general problems. Operation of Vehicles 1. Occupants should fasten seat belts on vehicles where they are provided. This is required by OSHA. 2. Only individuals with appropriate licenses should operate vehicles. 3. Driving under unusual conditions (e.g. in deserts or off road) should only be done by individuals experienced with those conditions. 4. All relevant traffic laws should be obeyed. Parking Motor vehicles on location can become hazards if they are parked so that they obstruct fire hydrants, emergency vehicle access, or pedestrian egress from buildings or tents. In addition vehicles that contain hazardous ingredients are a risk if parked near eating areas or other areas where people congregate. 1. The transportation coordinator for the production company should work with the Fire Department to establish safe parking areas. 2. Ensure that vehicles do not block emergency access or escape routes. 3. Park vehicles needed for filming operations at least 20 feet from tents. Other vehicles should be at least 100 feet from tents. 4. Vehicles should be parked at least 100 feet from areas where pyrotechnics/special effects materials are stored or used. Multiple Dressing Room Units Trailers are commonly used on location as multiple dressing room units. 1. The driver/operator should have an appropriate chauffeur's license for driving the size of vehicle and for driving passengers (assuming people are riding in the dressing room trailer). If a policy of no riders is adopted, then this would not be necessary. 2. While parked and in use, a qualified person should be present to operate the unit. 3. Generator exhausts shall be elevated a minimum of three feet above floor level, and vented to the outside at all times. 4. Skirts or other downward projections encircling the unit shall not be closer than one foot to the ground. 5. Before refueling the vehicle or generator, the unit shall be shut down and all occupants removed. Special caution should be taken when priming the carburetor. Fueling should be done safely in accordance with all local and state laws. 6. All portable electric heaters must be equipped with safety tipover switches. Such heaters should only be used temporarily in extreme cold weather or in case of malfunction of permanent heaters. 7. A single handrail or grab bar shall be required when the floor level is over three feet high. All steps should be stable, slip proof and properly constructed. Do not use boxes, concrete blocks, etc. The steps shall be kept clear of snow, ice, mud, and other debris. 8. No anti-freeze shall be added to potable water tanks. CAMERAS The actual filming can sometimes involve placing the camera crew and equipment in hazardous situations, for example shooting from a helicopter, moving vehicle, camera crane, or side of a mountain. When this will occur, the call sheet should describe the type of hazard. There are several basic types of camera mountings: fixed tripods, dollies for mobile cameras, camera cranes for high shots, and insert camera cars for shots on moving vehicles. The following sections will discuss procedures for working safely in such situations. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. A detailed discussion of safety problems involving helicopters and airplanes, as well as underwater photography will be discussed in Chapter 8 on stunts. Camera Cranes Some dollies or traveling trucks can be equipped with a counter-weighted boom for lifting the camera and operator to small heights, but for large elevations, heavy camera cranes are used. These can carry several people besides the camera. Because of the height, there are a variety of possible hazards, including power lines and other overhead obstructions, falls, high winds, and collapse of the crane. The following are some safety recommendations. 1. Camera cranes come under OSHA regulations that apply to aerial devices or lifts (CFR 1910.67). 2. The intention to use camera cranes should be noted in the call sheet to warn people to keep clear of its working radius and be responsive to the requests of the grip in charge. 3. The key or dolly grip are the only experts as to adequacy of equipment for a particular shot under given conditions. All preparation of equipment and supports should be under the control of an experienced grip designated by the key grip. 4. All lift controls should be tested prior to use. Never use incomplete or damaged equipment 5. The crane base and pedestal should be plumb level. Risers used to raise a crane should be capable of supporting the weight of crane and personnel, and be adequately braced. 6. Tracking surfaces should be both properly laid, and constructed in accordance with the supplier/manufacturer recommendations. 7. Cranes on unstable surfaces, such as sand, should have the blocking set to prevent collapse if the surface shifts. This also applies to laying track or supports over changes in surface or height. 8. The crane arm should never be left unbalanced. Wear gloves when loading or unloading uncoated lead ingots as weights. 9. Do not pass under arm of crane without permission of the grip in charge. 10. The minimum crew for a camera crane should be three people. All personnel on the platform should wear body belts and have a line attached to the platform or boom. People or equipment should not be added or removed from the crane without permission of the grip in charge. 11. There should be clear announcements and warnings concerning when and where cranes will be moved. 12. Care should be taken to ensure no contact of the crane or personnel with overhead obstructions. Similar care should be taken with camera cranes on moving vehicles. 13. A crane should not be left unattended while in use or being prepared for use. 14. Using the Ontario guidelines, the minimum distance from any part of a camera crane to live power lines should be as follows: Voltage Minimum distance 750 - 150,000 volts 10 feet (3 meters) 150,000 - 250,000 volts 15 feet (4.5 meters) more than 250,000 volts 20 feet (6 meters) OSHA regulations set the minimum distance at 10 feet up to 50,000 volts, plus 0.4 inches for every 1,000 volts over 50,000, or twice the length of the line insulator with a minimum of 10 feet. Insert Camera Cars Films involving moving vehicle scenes are a major cause of accidents to camera operators. Since 1980, four camera operators have been killed and many more injured in scenes involving car stunts, often from the vehicle hitting the stationery camera and operator, or from overturning of the camera car. Precautions connected with vehicle stunts in general will be discussed in Chapter 8. In this section I will discuss the particular problems of insert camera cars. Cameras can be mounted directly on moving vehicles that are to be filmed. This can be hazardous if the cameras and/or operators interfere with the vision of the driver. In addition, when the cameras are located on the outside of the vehicle, there are substantial risks to the camera operators. It is recommended that insert camera cars be used instead, whenever possible. Insert camera cars are vehicles that have been engineered for the mounting of cameras and the towing of the vehicle to be filmed. They can carry several people. 1. Safety checks using a checklist should be done before and after each run by qualified personnel. Records should be kept on each run. 2. All rigging should be done by experienced personnel. Ground fault circuit interrupters should be connected to electrical circuits. For filming at night, the insert camera car should have two portable tail lights attached to the towed vehicle to provide rear lighting. 3. There should be a dry run in advance of actual filming. Information on who has the authority to abort, a description of the intended action, and any possible variations, should be provided. 4. For general transportation of production personnel, the insert camera car should not carry more than nine people (including driver), according to the Industry Subcommittee to Investigate Safety Aspects of Insert Camera Cars. Ontario recommends a maximum of seven unless the camera car is designed for more. The rear of the car should carry a placard stating its maximum safe loading number. 5. While on a highway or public road, all traffic laws should be obeyed. 6. Only the operator should be in the cab while the vehicle is in motion, to ensure clear lines of sight. 7. Only essential personnel and equipment should be on the vehicle for the actual filming. 8. Only qualified stunt performers should be on the towbar or exterior of towed vehicles. 9. Special safety procedures should be developed for hazardous conditions such as bad weather, stunts, explosives etc. (See also Chapters 7 and 8.) 10. Special attention should be given to communications during filming. Any special communications procedures to be used should be discussed in advance with all involved in the scene to be filmed. One individual should be the only contact with the insert camera car operator via a dediccated, open radio channel. In case of radio silence, an alternate method of communications should be designated. 11. The following sound signals have been recommended as standard signals for the industry: a) prior to moving forward - sound 2 short blasts; b) prior to backing up - 3 short blasts; and c) emergency stop - 1 long blast. An alternative might be needed for night shooting in residential areas. 12. A copy of the guidelines should be posted on the glove compartment of the insert camera car. ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT Electrical and lighting equipment can be a major source of heat and sparks which can create a fire. In addition, the large amounts of power used on filming sites creates a severe risk of electrical shock if live wires are touched. This is particularly a problem with improperly maintained wiring, especially since the temporary nature of many film locations results in extensive use of flexible cords. The recent switch to alternating current (A/C) in many situations means many people may not be sufficiently familiar with its hazards. The need for large amounts of power also means that the source of power must be adequate. If no power is available or local power sources are not adequate or reliable, then alternate sources of power must be obtained. Examples of electrical and lighting hazards include proximity of hot lamps to combustibles and sprinkler heads, shorting of electrical wiring or equipment, inadequate wiring, deteriorated cables or equipment, fire and health hazards from carbon arcs, and inadequate grounding of equipment. The following are recommendations. For detailed information, see NABET 15 Electric Department Safety Manual (1984), and sections 520 and 530 of the National Electrical Code. Some of these recommendations are taken from electrical safety guidelines in Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Power and Distribution System 1. All electrical work and wiring should be done in accordance with requirements of the National Electrical Code by licensed electricians. Only members of the electrical crew should make electrical connections to distribution boxes. 2. One person on the crew should have responsibility for all electrical distribution. This individual should have a meter capable of reading the load on cables to ensure that balance is maintained. 3. Proper non-conducting attire should be worn at all times, including rubber-soled shoes, rubber gloves in condition of high humidity and tying-in, etc. 4. All cables, distribution boxes, etc. should use standard color coding: white - neutral; green - case or earth grounding; red, black and blue - live or hot wire; brown, yellow and orange - high voltage. 5. The electrical distribution system should have a separate ground that is not returned to neutral. 6. All electrical personnel should be aware of the load-bearing capacity of cables and boxes and not overload this capacity. 7. Flexible cords are approved by the National Electrical Code for film production because of its temporary nature. The cables, however, should be marked with gauge and/or ampacity, and should be adequate for the equipment. 8. Cables should be routed, taped down or covered to avoid people tripping over them. They should not be nailed, stapled, or tacked to wood or attached to metal pipes or other metal materials. Cables should not be in places where they can be damaged by vehicles or other equipment. 9. Cables should not be spliced; they should be connected to approved ter- minals or connectors. 10. Cables should be checked regularly for overheating, loose connections, fraying or other damage. 11. All portable generators, extensions, four-way boxes, breaker boxes, equipment, etc. should be properly grounded. Portable generators must be periodically checked. 12. When doing electrical work in or around water (rain, snow, bodies or water, wet or damp areas), observe the following: * Use safer direct current (DC) when possible. For AC, use one phase to limit voltage, and install ground fault circuit interrupters. * Wear proper clothing (rubber gloves, full water-proof suit and shoes). * Ground all instruments. * Keep connections and distribution systems dry and insulated from the ground. Tie-Ins Tie-ins to the power source (and un-ties at the end) must follow appropriate safety procedures due to the high amperages involved. Precautions include: 1. Two qualified electricians should be present. 2. Use proper equipment (ABC fire extinguisher, insulating gloves and shoes, safety goggles, insulating rubber mat, rubber for insulating between connectors, electric meter, flashlight, insulated screwdriver, gaffer tape, electrician's tape, etc.). 3. Check the type of current (AC or DC), the voltage, and amperage needs. 4. Isolate the phases from each other with nonconducting materials before tying in. 5. Use a separate ground that does not return to neutral when tying in. 6. Secure tie-in leads and clips adequately. 7. Provide fused, safety disconnect switches or boxes between power source and "on set" distribution. Lights 1. All lights and other powered equipment should be properly grounded. 2. Deteriorated or poorly maintained lighting equipment fixtures, sockets, fixture wiring, etc. should be replaced. 3. Fixtures should be turned off and disconnected from the power source before being worked on. 4. Equipment repaired on the set should be checked for continuity and polarity before reuse. 5. All lighting fixtures or stands should be properly supported to prevent tipping. Hung fixtures should have a safety chain. 6. Install ground fault circuit interrupters (for AC), when using powered equipment within 6 feet of the possibility of water splashing. 7. Open-faced equipment should have shielding to protect nearby personnel from flying glass in case of an exploding bulb. 8. High voltage gas discharge lamps - such as neons, HMIs, CSIs and fluorescents - should be properly grounded, inspected for lens cracks that could leak ultraviolet radiation, and otherwise handled with the care given high voltage equipment. Personnel using them should be aware of the ballasts used and ensure all micro safety devices are working. Only trained technicians should make repairs to these. They should be covered to protect from rain or high humidity, and ballasts grounded. Keep people away before striking the lamp. 9. All personnel on a set should be warned of the dangers of ultraviolet radiation from "arc" type lamps, and care taken to protect against skin and eye damage. 10. Carbon arcs give off sparks which can be a fire hazard and combustible materials should be removed from their area. In addition, eye protection is needed to prevent exposure to the intense ultraviolet radiation given off, and local exhaust ventilation is needed to vent toxic fumes and gases given off by carbon arcs. SCAFFOLDING AND RIGGING Scaffolding Scaffolding can be used for mounting of cameras, lighting and other equipment. Mobile scaffolds are also sometimes used. Standard precautions to be used with scaffolds were discussed in Chapter 4 in the section on Carpentry. The following are some specific recommendations related to the use of scaffolds in filming. These safety procedures are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. 1. Rolling scaffolds (towers) must have proper cross and horizontal bracing and at least two of four casters or wheels must be swivel type with locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds unless there is complete control of the path, the path is smooth and level, there are no overhead obstructions (especially power lines) and the workers are given time to tie down or leave. 2. The Key Grip should determine the safe number of personnel and equipment working on a scaffold. 3. Cameras, lights and other equipment must be securely attached to the scaffold. 4. Hanging large surface areas of material such as back drapes, tarpaulins, etc. from a outside scaffold can be hazardous under certain conditions such as high winds or gusting winds due to danger of capsizing. Under such hazardous conditions, the Key Grip or other safety personnel may remove either personnel or materials from the scaffold. 5. See also Camera Crane section above for other relevant recommendations. Rigging On location and in many studios, lights are rigged to sets, scaffolding or are free standing. In many television studios, in particular, lights are hung from permanent overhead grids. The position of the lights is often adjusted by rigging systems. In addition rigging can be used to fly scenery or even people for special effects (e.g. "Superman" movies). I will not try to discuss the technical details of rigging here, but only procedures. For detailed information on rigging safety, see the Stage Rigging Handbook by Jay O. Glerum. 1. Operation, maintenance, and repair work on rigging equipment shall be done by properly trained and qualified persons. They should be knowledgeable in operation and functioning of the equipment, safe use, routine maintenance, operation of safety devices, possible dangers during proper and improper operation, and emergency procedures. 2. All rigging equipment shall be inspected before use, after alterations, and at regular intervals. 3. Be sure the load does not exceed the safe capacity of the system. 4. Follow safe procedures when loading, unloading, or operating rigging systems. Unbalanced counterweight systems should be kept on the ground, for example while loading and unloading. 5. Maintain visual contact with a moving piece at all times. 6. Warn people on the set, deck and grid before moving any rigged scenery or other object. Do not ever move set if people are underneath. 7. Maintain control of moving pieces at all times. 8. Only assigned personnel shall have access to suspended work areas such as grids and catwalks. 9. All hoisting systems should be secured to prevent accidental or unauthorized use. DRESSING, COSTUMES, AND MAKEUP Dressing Rooms Dressing rooms are used for dressing, application of makeup, resting, reviewing scripts, etc. Dressing rooms can be fixed rooms in permanent studios, or consist of multiple dressing room units (trailers) for temporary locations. 1. All dressing rooms should be heated or cooled to maintain comfortable ambient temperatures. 2. Dressing rooms, whether mobile or fixed, do not have adequate ventilation for use of volatile chemicals. Hair sprays or other aerosol sprays should not be used in these dressing rooms. Use pump sprays instead. (Occasional use of hair spray outdoors would be acceptable.) 3. Smoking should be prohibited in all dressing rooms occupied by more than one person. 4. See the Motor Vehicles section for information on the hazards of multiple dressing room units. Costumes Costumes can present sometimes hazards both to the actors wearing them and to the wardrobe attendant responsible for caring for them. In addition, the making of special costumes such as armor, masks, etc. can be hazardous. The use of plastics resins in making such materials was dis- cussed in the previous chapter under Props. Ordinary costumes do not present a hazard under normal conditions. For example, a regular costume for an actor who is working near an open fire or flame should be treated with an approved fire retardant and made of high wool or cotton content. Synthetic materials are not recommended due to their melting and flammability properties. For a stunt person in a fire scene, special protective gels and other precautions would be used on both clothing and hair (see Chapter 8). Heat and cold can be a problem if an actor has to wear a costume not suited to the climate for a particular scene. In those instances, work breaks and other protective measures might be needed. See later sections in this chapter on heat and cold. Special costumes involving metal or wood frameworks (e.g. for robot costumes) could both be heavy and hot for the person wearing them. In such instances, the materials should be as light as possible and any structural framework supported in such a way as to minimize discomfort and possible strains. The filming should be scheduled so as to minimize time spent wearing the costume. In some instances, there might have to be provision for supplying cool air to the actor inside the costume. In addition, the costume has to be designed for easy escape in case of fire or entanglement. Caring for Costumes It is important to ensure that costumes are kept clean in order to prevent mildew formation and unsanitary conditions. A wide variety of hazardous solvents, aerosol sprays, dyes, cleaning solutions, etc. are used in caring for costumes. These are commonly being used without adequate ventilation and have created health problems in the wardrobe attendants whose job it is to care for costumes. 1. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on all cleaning and other products. 2. Whenever possible, replace the hazardous chlorinated solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene and methylene chloride with safer solvents such as mineral spirits. 3. Avoid aerosol spraying whenever possible. Use pump products rather than aerosol spray cans. 4. Use water-based dyes rather than alcohol-based ones. If alcohol-based dyes are essential, use denatured alcohol or isopropyl alcohol rather than the more toxic methyl alcohol. 5. Use pre-mixed liquid dyes rather than powdered dyes. If powdered dyes are essential, mix the dyes inside a glove box made by shellacking the inside of a cardboard box (for ease of cleaning), place a glass or plex- iglass top on it, and cut two holes in the sides for arms. 6. In fixed locations, proper ventilation such as slot exhaust hoods and spray booths should be used when working with solvents or spraying. On temporary locations, I recommend using portable explosion-proof blowers/exhausters which can be set up next to the work location and ex- haust the solvent vapors to the outside through flexible ducting. 7. In instances where adequate ventilation is not present, NIOSH-approved respirators with organic vapor cartridges (and spray prefilters if spraying) may be necessary. 8. See the Solvents and Thinners section in Chapter 4. Makeup The use of theatrical makeup - face powders, rouge, cream makeups, lipsticks, mascara, hair sprays,etc. - by actors and actresses for motion picture filming is universal. However, both the process of application and the chemical ingredients in cosmetics can be hazardous. A classic example of makeup hazards occurred during the filming of the "Wizard of Oz". The original Tin Man, Buddy Ebsen, had to quit the film because he was hospi- talized with a severe allergic reaction to the aluminum paint used as makeup. This section will discuss the hazards of standard makeup used by actors. The Special Effects Makeup section in Chapter 7 will discuss the use of prosthetic devices. A wide variety of solvents, dyes and pigments, preservatives, oils, waxes, etc. can be found in various types of makeup. Many of these ingredients can cause skin irritation or allergies; certain ingredients, for example some solvents, can be absorbed through the skin. Many hair dyes are known or probable human carcinogens. With powders and aerosol spray products such as hair spray, inhalation is also a hazard. The most common type of reaction to makeup is cosmetic acne, a mild, intermittent, inflammatory reaction involving small pimples which mostly affects women in their twenties through their fifties. Animal studies have implicated a number of known acnegenic ingredients in cosmetics, including many oils, cocoa butter, oleic acid, and butyl stearate. Infections can also result. Solvents such as acetone can cause defatting of the skin, resulting in dry, cracked skin. Other chemicals that are acidic, basic, or strong oxidizers can also cause skin irritation or irritant dermatitis. Examples are sodium and potassium hydroxide used in cuticle softeners and hair relaxers, and peroxide used to lighten facial hair. Many cosmetic ingredients - called sensitizers - can cause skin allergies. Preservatives, chrome and nickel compounds found in some eye cosmetics, and acrylates and formaldehyde found in artificial nail prod- ucts, are examples of chemicals that are common sensitizers. The eyes are even more sensitive than the skin. Conjunctivitis (irritation of the membranes covering the eyeball and eyelids) is a common reaction to eye contact with many chemicals found in cosmetics. Scratching of the cornea during application of eye makeup is a common problem, especially from application of mascara. These abrasions can also become infected. Inhalation of solvents from hair sprays and other spray products is also hazardous. Methylene chloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane, for example, which are found in many aerosol spray products, can cause heart arrhythmias. Methylene chloride can also cause other heart problems, and is a probable human carcinogen. In one instance, a wardrobe attendant in the Broadway play "Sugar Babies" suffered a heart attack after using amethylene chloride-containing spray shoe dye on a bear costume. Inhalation of dust from face powders, rouges, etc., has not been shown to cause serious problems, although there have been reports of temporary irritation and allergic reactions to some powdered ingredients. The following are recommended precautions: 1. Only purchase makeup and other cosmetics that have the ingredients listed on the label. 2. Do not use old makeup. Replace makeup on a regular basis. 3. Wash hands before and after applying makeup. 4. Do not smoke, drink or eat when applying makeup. 5. Avoid creating airborne dust when applying face powders or talcum powders. 6. Avoid aerosol sprays whenever possible; use pump sprays instead. 7. Moisten brushes or pencils with clean tap water, not saliva. 8. Seek medical advice whenever eye injuries have occurred. 9. If you have a persistent skin reaction, see a dermatologist. Stop using the makeup until healing is complete. 10. If you have an allergic reaction to particular types of makeup, try to identify which ingredients are in common and might be the cause of the reaction. 11. If you have problems, try using "hypoallergenic" makeup and unscented makeup. 12. Whenever possible, use isopropyl myristate to remove makeup instead of other, more toxic solvents. 13. Use emollients or moisturizers to counter the drying effects of materials used to remove spirit gum and similar products. 14. Derma Guard is a trade name barrier cream that protects the skin from many agents and can be used under makeup. Shared Makeup "Never lend or accept makeup from anyone." This general rule is one often violated in film and theater work. Sharing makeup is common, and often one makeup artist works on 10, 50 or 100 people daily. One problem with shared makeup is the fact that some types of cosmetics can be vehicles for biological transmission of disease. Bacterial infections, such as staphylococcus, impetigo, and streptococcus can be passed from one individual to another. However, most current concern and questions surround the possibility of transmission of viral infections, such as AIDS, herpes simplex, and hepatitis B. Presently, little research exists specifically questioning the possible transmission of these viruses via common application of makeup. At this time, the medical profession stresses that it is unlikely that a virus will be passed through this type of contact. In particular, transmission of AIDS, which is passed through sexual or blood contact, is not probable. (Moreover, an individual who is HIV positive or suffering from AIDS is not likely to catch opportunistic infections from other people via shared makeup since the infectious agents responsible for these types of diseases already exist in most people. It is the compromised immune system of the AIDS patient that allows these ailments to develop unchecked.) It is important to prevent panic about disease transmission while also providing the safest possible environment for makeup application. According to theatrical makeup manufacturers, preservatives used in makeups do not protect against transmission of infection. These additives only in- crease the shelf-life of the product, and once opened, the makeup can become contaminated. Individual makeup is the key to good hygiene. The following is a list of suggestions and guidelines to help prevent infections from contaminated makeup: 1. Creme sticks: Slice these out with dental spatulas on to individual papers such as butter trays. Label and reuse them individually for touch-ups. 2. Lipsticks: These too can be sliced and labeled. For a long running show, individual lipsticks should be provided. 3. Pancakes and Powders: Powdered products provide a less viable environment for infection, but try to individualize usage. Supply powders in the smallest containers available. 4. Mascara: Use individual applicators/containers. 5. Eyeliners and Eye makeup: Use individual products. 6. Brushes: Use disposable brushes. 7. Sponges: Use disposable sponges whenever possible. Reusable ones can be disinfected. Give out individual sponges at the beginning of a show, and maintain separate use. 8. General Hygiene: Makeup artists should wash hands between clients, for protection of both the makeup artist and the performer. Likewise, cleaned containers with fresh water should be used for applying each performer's makeup. 9. Miscellaneous: Any type of facial hair, skullcaps, sequins, combs, hairbrushes, or other face product should be disinfected before use by a new performer. These types of products should be carefully stored in labeled individual plastic bags between performances. Use an approved bactericide for disinfection. Always use the smallest containers possible. If these are not "personal size," you can subdivide makeup from the larger containers. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS Heat Stress Long hours of filming in a desert or even outdoors on a very hot day can expose actors and crew to excessive heat, which is often uncomfortable, and sometimes dangerous. In 1988, filming was done on location in Cobo San Lucas, a desert town in Mexico, where the local temperature can reach as high as 120 F. As a result of the heat, a cameraman passed out on the side of a cliff. Fortunately, he was rescued from falling to his death. Heat stress, at a minimum, can decrease concentration - costing money from increased production time and wasting effort - and can cause injuries that range from minor (heat rash) to fatal (heat stroke). The human body is comfortable at about 75 F, with 45% relative humidity. Comfort is determined by the amount of activity, the relative humidity, and the amount of air movement - all variables that affect the rate at which the body loses heat. The level of activity (work load), age, weight, disease status, alcohol intake, taking of medications, water and salt balance, and physical fitness all play a role in the human body's response to heat stress. Persons exposed regularly to a hot environment develop adjustments that enable maintenance of a normal internal temperature. This process - called acclimatization - can take place in about 5-7 days, and occurs more readily in younger people. Gradual exposure to heat allows the human body time to become accustomed to higher environmental temperatures. When an individual is removed from the hot environment for even one week, up to two-thirds of the acclimatization may occur. Total loss of the effect is seen after a three-week absence from exposure. There are several types of heat-related illnesses. It is important to remember that sometimes more than one of the heat illnesses may be present concurrently. 1. Heat Stroke: This is the most severe heat ailment, and is characterized by a sharp rise in body temperature resulting from the failure of the sweating mechanism, or from too high a temperature. A person suffering from heat stroke can appear confused, angry, deluded and may suffer convulsions. The skin is at first hot, dry and red, later turning gray in color. There is a 20% mortality in treated cases, with potential brain damage. Untreated cases are fatal. The victim should be taken immediately to a hospital. 2. Heat Exhaustion: This reaction occurs in healthy persons exposed to a hot environment to which they are unaccustomed, unacclimatized, or if they have lost their acclimatization from being away from the heat. Inefficient sweating and inadequate fluid replacement can lead to a loss of necessary fluids and salt. Heat exhaustion due to salt-depletion is the more common form. The victim will become irritable, confused, nauseous, dizzy and weak and may experience muscular fatigue. Skin will appear moist and clammy, along with low blood pressure and a weak, slow pulse. In contrast with heat stroke, the body temperature is near normal. Removal to a cool environment, plus replacement of body fluids will result in recovery in mild cases. Severely ill individuals should be hospitalized. 3. Heat Cramps: When a person suffering from heat exhaustion tries to quickly replace lost body fluids, cramping may occur. This heat reaction includes painful spasms of the bone muscles due to liquid intake unaccompanied by adequate salt replacement. Removal from the hot environment and replacement of salt can reverse this condition. 4. Heat Fainting or Syncope: People unaccustomed to extremely hot temperatures, especially if unacclimatized, can experience lightheadedness, flushed sensation and fainting. This condition occurs when blood vessels all over the body are dilated, resulting in a lack of blood volume, especially to the brain. Recovery is rapid when the individual rests lying down in a cool environment. Liquids should be given orally. 5. Heat Rash (prickly heat): Sometimes clogging or inflammation of sweat glands or ducts leads to the developing of a rash resulting from a lack of sweat evaporation. Individuals who have poorly functioning sweat glands, as shown by the development of prickly heat, are at greater risk for heat stroke than others. Heat Precautions Every person working on a production must be considered including technical crew, extras, production crew, actors, and director. One very important variable in determining heat stress potential is the activity level of an individual. An actor with a very physically active part or the person holding the lights for ten straight hours all have heavy workloads that increase the possibility of heat stress. 1. Qualified medical professionals trained in recognizing the symptoms of heat stress and providing emergency medical treatment for affected individuals should be on location at all times at productions that have high activity levels accompanied by hot temperatures. (See Chapter 9.) 2. Allowing time for acclimatization is appropriate if an individual is going to work on a project for an extended period of time, (since the period of acclimatization itself can take about 5-7 days). The first week of rehearsal, filming, or production in a hot environment should provide all workers with a gradually increasing schedule allowing acclimatization to occur. 3. Rest breaks should be integrated into the rehearsal, performance, and filming schedule. Work-rest cycles allow the body an opportunity to get rid of excess heat, slow down the production of internal heat, and provide greater blood flow to the skin. Shorter but frequent rest cycles are the best for those working in hot environments. Ideally, the workload should be distributed evenly over the course of the day. 4. In very hot situations, there should be cool rest areas provided for all individuals working on the project, not just principals. These cool areas could be separate air-conditioned trailers, tents, studios or rooms. While it is not known conclusively what the ideal temperature of the rest area should be, a rest area temperature of 76 F appears to be comfortable, but not chilly, to those working in a hot environment. This may necessitate separate power generators. 5. Non-carbonated beverages and water should be readily available for replenishment of fluid and salt. People often don't replace the 2 to 3 gallons of liquid they sweat daily, so one shouldn't rely on "thirst" to signal fluid intake. Persons working in a hot environment should drink 5-7 ounces of fluids every 15 or 20 minutes. In particularly hot environments, liquids with salt or other special additives (e.g. Gatorade or other similar brands), should be available. The use of salt tablets is not recommended. The drinking of salted beverages, of course, should be controlled for individuals with medical conditions requiring a low-sodium diet. 6. Appropriate administrative controls should be used whenever possible. For example, rehearsals should be scheduled in comfortable locations even if the actual performance has to occur at a hot site. Scheduling should allow for rest or break time during the hottest part of the day (11-2 PM). In the event of extreme heat situations, like a sudden heat wave, or failure of an air conditioning system, effort should be made to postpone all nonessential tasks, allow only those who are acclimatized to hot temperatures to work, and utilize extra workers to allow more rest time for all. 7. There should be adequate comfort ventilation for indoor locations such as theaters, studios, etc. where possible. Air-conditioning provides comfort from hot environments. It is important to remember that ventilation for climate control is separate from ventilation of contaminants. Fans will provide some comfort by creating air movement which can assist in evaporation of sweat and conduction of heat. 8. Certain types of protective clothing may alleviate heat stress to individuals for whom clothing doesn't interfere with production or performance. Loose fitting, natural fiber, light-colored clothing will help. Outdoors in the sun, head covering becomes essential. In extremely hot environments, members of the crew can wear special clothing that is reflective, air-cooled, or insulated with ice. 9. Recognition of individuals with special medical problems is necessary. For example, people with heart or kidney problems, who are overweight, or are not physically fit are more susceptible to heat stress hazards. 10. Protection from sunburn, which is common in hot outdoor environments, is important. This involves the use of protective lotions and barrier creams for all people exposed to excess solar radiation. Actors can have sunscreens incorporated into their makeup. 11. Extended stays in very hot environments might require heat stress measurements by an industrial hygienist. Individuals who are exposed to high temperatures should not have a deep body temperature in excess of 38 C (100 F). Cold Stress Too low a temperature is also hazardous. This situation can occur while filming in the winter, in the arctic, or from immersion in cold water for even short periods. Even filming such a seemingly innocuous scene as a walk through a cool mountain brook could be a hazard. Wind increases the rate of heat loss from the body. Wet clothing, contact with cold metals, heart disease, alcohol, unconsciousness, exhaustion, hunger, old age or very young age can exacerbate the effects of cold. The body only has a limited capacity to handle cold and does not acclimatize to cold in the same way it does to heat. The following are some of the common health effects of cold exposure: 1. Frostbite: One common reaction to cold is frostbite, where actual tissue damage occurs, especially to the hands, feet and face. In severe cases frostbite is irreversible, and amputation is sometimes necessary to prevent gangrene. In milder cases, healing can occur although there are often long-term effects such as numbness, pain, etc., especially in cold weather. 2. Trench Foot: Immersion or trench foot is caused by cold damp, especially when the feet get wet for extended periods. Symptoms include pale, numb, clammy and swollen feet. There is damage to the blood vessels and long-term cold sensitivity can result. 3. Hypothermia: The most serious type of cold injury is hypothermia, which involves serious lowering of the body temperature. This can be fatal as shown by examples of death occurring in people lost in snowstorms or immersed in the North Atlantic Ocean after a shipwreck. Symptoms include lethargy, mental confusion, hallucinations, partial or total loss of consciousness, slowed breathing and heartbeat. Hypothermia is a major medical emergency and can be fatal. Cold Precautions 1. Qualified medical professionals trained in recognizing the symptoms of cold injury and providing emergency medical treatment for affected individuals should be on location at all times at productions that involve working in cold temperatures. (See Chapter 9.) 2. In cold weather, wear warm, multilayered natural fiber clothing with good hand, feet and head protection. Do not wear constricting wrist cuffs or tight socks and shoes. In very cold weather, especially if there is a wind, face protection is also needed. 3. Have a warm, protected tent or other structure in which people working in the cold can take work breaks. Warm drinks and food should be available. 4. Minimize the time spent in cool or cold water. For retakes, allow sufficient time for rewarming. This should be monitored by medical personnel. 5. Have emergency procedures for quick rescue if there is a risk of someone falling into cold water. (See next section.) 6. In cases of suspected frostbite or other cold injury (except hypothermia), there should be slow rewarming. For mild exposures, use unaffected hands or warm object. For frostbite use a warm bath (maximum temperature 100 F) and warm liquids to drink. Do not exceed 100 F because the affected parts can have no feeling. If the feet are frozen, do not warm or thaw them if the person has to walk any considerable distance. 7. For hypothermia, immediate hospitalization or emergency medical treatment is crucial. If medical help is not immediately available, rewarming at the scene can start with immersing the person's hands and forearms in water at a temperature of 113-118 F (check with a thermometer). The water should be bearably hot to the rescuer's elbow. If conscious, give hot drinks. Water Hazards A general discussion of choosing a water location is found in Chapter 3. Filming in or around water is definitely more hazardous than filming on land. The following are some recommendations to minimize water hazards. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use water sequences. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. A contaminated body of water should never be used for filming if personnel could come in contact with the water, unless they are outfitted in full drysuits. (See the Water section of Chapter 3.) 3. Care shall be taken to ensure that the water does not become contaminated by gasoline, oils, paints, etc. 4. Potentially hazardous foreign objects should be removed or identified and marked. If they are needed for filming, the markings can be removed for that scene. 5. If boats are used, all boating regulations shall be followed, including any others that are specified by local authorities. 6. All personnel working in or around water should be able to swim and/or required to wear appropriate water safety equipment. 7. Immersion in cold water can cause hypothermia, which sometimes is fatal. (See the Cold Stress section above.) This particularly can be a problem in colder seasons or at high elevations. "Wet" or "dry" suits may be required for personnel who are working in the water. Safety notices concerning the treatment of hypothermia should be attached to the call sheet. 8. When working in fast moving waters, safety equipment, including ropes and nets, and rescue personnel shall be located downstream. 9. Washing facilities should be available for persons immersed in water. Their use should be mandatory. 10. Only direct current (DC) power should be used in or near water, unless each alternating current (AC) source is separately grounded with a ground fault circuit interrupter between the power source and the piece of electrical equipment. Only single phase current should be used. (See also the Electrical and Lighting Equipment section of this chapter.) FILM FIRE/LIFE SAFETY INSPECTION CHECKLIST This checklist is reprinted from the Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook, published by the Office of the California State Fire Marshal. YES NO I. Access A. Fire lanes kept clear (20 feet wide) __ __ B. Hydrants not blocked __ __ C. Fire department connections clear __ __ D. Standpipe connections clear __ __ II. Parking A. Special effects trucks parked in designated location __ __ B. Refueler vehicles parked in designated locations __ __ C. All vehicles parked minimum 20 feet from tents __ __ D. Catering trucks parked in designated locations __ __ E. Generator truck parked in designated location __ __ F. Water tenders parked in designated locations __ __ G. Dry vegetation cleared from designated parking areas __ __ III. Exiting A. All designated exits kept clear __ __ B. Exits visible __ __ C. No flammable liquids, LPG or pyrotechnics near an exit __ __ IV. Pyrotechnic Special Effects A. Proper license in possession of pyrotechnician __ __ B. Permit on site __ __ C. Fire department briefed on proposed activity __ __ D. Alternative means of protection provided __ __ E. Special effects in Class II magazine or Dept. of Transportation carton __ __ F. Fire extinguishment provided by pyrotechnician __ __ G. Extinguishment equipment charged and in good working order __ __ V. Flammable Liquids and Gases A. Proper storage in approved containers __ __ B. Pressure vessels identified as to contents __ __ C. Pressure vessels secured __ __ D. Approved hoses and valves for pressurized gases __ __ E. Flammable liquids and gases kept away from heat sources __ __ F. No refueling of equipment while in operation __ __ G. Refueling done in remote area __ __ H. Aircraft refueled in designated site on location __ __ I. Supply and receiving vessels bonded together __ __ J. No leakage of fuels from generators __ __ K. Spray painting and lacquer application performed safely __ __ L. Proper ventilation to prevent flammable vapors from accumulating __ __ VI. Electrical and Lighting A. Cords and connections in good condition (no deterioration) __ __ B. Extension cords not used as substitute for permanent wiring of building __ __ C. A/C properly grounded __ __ D. Generators attended and in good repair __ __ E. Generators grounded __ __ F. Cables properly protected, bundled, and kept as clear as possible at exits __ __ G. Combustible materials kept clear of light fixtures __ __ VII. Welding, Cutting and Grinding A. Combustible materials within 10 feet of welding relocated or covered __ __ B. Flammable liquids removed from area where grinding sparks are produced __ __ C. Fire extinguishers provided on welding set __ __ VIII. Smoking A. Smoking prohibited near pyrotechnic special effects storage, or flammable liquids storage and dispensing area __ __ B. Designated smoking areas, if any, clearly marked __ __ C. NO SMOKING signs prominently visible where smoking is prohibited __ __ IX. Miscellaneous A. Film permit on site __ __ B. All sprinkler and standpipe systems fully operational __ __ C. Extinguishers present and ready for use __ __ D. Methods of reporting an emergency available __ __ E. Catering trucks provided with fire extinguishers __ __ F. Light combustibles in carpenter shop and other work areas removed frequently __ __ G. Tent materials flame retardant __ __ H. Fabrics, draperies, etc. flame retardant __ __ I. Brush cleared adequately at outdoor filming locations __ __ J. Open burning in compliance with all regulations __ __ K. Helistop clearly delineated and adequately cleared __ __ L. Bleachers and grandstands constructed to withstand loads imposed __ __ M. Greens (trees, bushes, etc.), if not fresh or live, flame retardant __ __ X. Required Permits and/or Certificates A. Film permit __ __ B. Special effects (pyrotechnic or non-pyrotechnic) __ __ C. Refueler vehicle __ __ D. Welding and/or cutting __ __ E. Tent __ __ F. Flame retardant __ __ REFERENCES Babin, A. (1989). Heat Stress. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. Babin, A., and Giacalone, K. (1988). Shared Makeup Hazards. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. California State Fire Marshall Film Advisory Committee. (1988). Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. California State Fire Marshall, Sacramento. Glerum, J.O. (1987). Stage Rigging Handbook. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians Local 15. (1984). Electric Department Safety Manual. NABET 15, New York. National Fire Protection Association. (1981). Fire Protection Handbook, 15th ed. NFPA, Quincy, MA. National Fire Protection Association. (1987). NFPA 70 National Electrical Code. NFPA, Quincy. National Fire Protection Association. (1985). NFPA 101 Life Safety Code. NFPA, Quincy. National Fire Protection Association. (1962). NFPA 51B-1962 Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Welding and Cutting Operations. NFPA, Quincy. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1986). Working in Hot Environments. U.S Department of Health and Human Services DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-112. NIOSH, Cincinnati. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For Construction, 29 CFR Part 1926. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Rossol, M. (1986). Stage Fright: Health and Safety in the Theater. Allsworth Press, New York. Schwartz, G.K., et al. (1986). Principles and Practice of Emergency Medicine. W.B Saunders Co., Philadelphia. CHAPTER 6. PROCEDURES FOR HIGH RISK SITUATIONS High risk activities such as stunts, special effects explosions, hazardous camera locations, and similar situations require special procedures to prevent injuries. The two crucial steps in planning a hazardous scene are preplanning and establishing safe procedures for filming. PREPLANNING There are two stages involved in the preplanning: 1) reviewing the script for potentially hazardous scenes; and 2) choosing the safest way to accomplish the scene. Identification of Potentially Hazardous Scenes The script should be reviewed by a qualified consultant or safety director who is experienced in evaluating the many types of hazards found in motion picture production. This expert should identify potentially hazardous scenes. Types of potential problems include hazardous locations, fires and explosions, fogs, smoke and other hazardous special effects, car and helicopter scenes, water stunts, falls, animals and reptiles, hazardous camera locations, etc. Ideally, the expert should be involved in the earliest production meetings, discussing ways of carrying out potentially hazardous scenes. Minimal input would involve the expert before selection of the location or other final decisions are made as to how a potentially hazardous scene will be filmed. Choosing the Safest Way The basic question should be asked, "Is there a safer alternative that does not unnecessarily limit creativity?" In recent years, for example, realism (as opposed to simulation) has been the cause of many unnecessary fatalities and injuries. In 1989, producer and director Toby Halicki was killed while filming a special effect for "Gone in 60 Seconds II" outside Buffalo. The effect involved the collapse of a 161-foot water tower. Unfortunately the water tower collapsed early, snapping a support cable and pulling over a telephone pole which fell on Mr. Halicki. The real question is why was this effect done at all? Experts have said that the effect could have been done as convincingly and cheaply using a small scale model. Similarly, many modern day helicopter scenes are filmed realistically, whereas in the past they would have been simulated using special effects without anyone detecting the method. And today, special effects are even more realistic. Other examples of stunts and special effects that could often be eliminated or modified include use of live am- munition and explosives, real swords and knives, live persons in car crash- es, extended scenes of underwater swimming or walking in the desert, etc. The advent of modern computer simulations can also eliminate the risks of many dangerous scenes. Many otherwise safe scenes involve filming from unusual angles or locations, for example from helicopters or cliffs, that put the camera crew at high risk. Simulation of some of these scenes or modification of camera angles could eliminate very hazardous situations. PLANNING SAFE PROCEDURES Planning how to do a scene safely involves answering several questions. What are the actual risks? Who is in charge? Who performs the scene? Is the camera crew at risk? What safety procedures are needed for the scene? What outside agencies should be involved? Once the safety procedures have been developed for a scene, they should be reviewed. The motion picture and television film industry should establish a Stunt and Special Effects Evaluation committee, composed of experts in the field, who would review the adequacy of the safety procedures for hazardous stunts or special effects. Risk Evaluation Once a particular scene is identified as potentially hazardous, then it is necessary to evaluate the risk. The degree of risk is going to depend on the characteristics of the specific hazard, who could be injured, and the nature of the potential injuries. Falling down a flight of stairs, for example, is inherently more dangerous than falling down on a level floor, and should be considered a stunt. Falling down stairs carries a high risk of severe injury and possibly even death, whereas simply falling on the floor carries a much lower risk of severe injury. Note however, that even a simple fall carries a risk of minor injuries such as sprained ankles, bruises, etc. In both these instances, the likelihood of other actors or crew being injured is minimal under normal circumstances. Consider, however, a high speed car chase in traffic. The drivers and passengers in the two cars involved in the actual chase are obviously at high risk of serious injury or even fatality in case of an accident. Motorists that are part of the background traffic are also at high risk because of the chance of misjudgments on the part of the chase cars or traffic cars, resulting in an accident involving the bystander traffic cars. The camera crew can also be at risk. In several accidents, camera crew members have been injured or killed when a stunt car crashed into them or when their camera car overturned. One example was the death of cameraman Bruce Ingram and the injury of seven others during the filming of "The Wraith" in 1986. This is just one instance of film crews or other non-participants being injured or killed during the filming of action sequences. Once the nature of the hazard, who is at risk and the seriousness of possible injuries are identified, then safety procedures can be developed to minimize these risks. Who Is In Charge One of the most critical aspects of planning and carrying out a hazardous scene is determining who is responsible for planning safety procedures for the scene and making sure they are carried out. As discussed in Chapter 2, there should be a safety director for the film. He or she would have ultimate responsibility for safety of all personnel on the set. However, there are many types of scenes that need special expertise. This can include stunt coordinators, special effects coordinators, fight directors, animal handlers, stunt pilots, certified underwater SCUBA divers, etc. These experts should have all applicable certifications in their area of expertise, and should be directly involved in developing the safety procedures for the scene. Once safety procedures have been established, they should be approved by an independent consultant or committee. On the set, the expert should have primary control over all safety procedures and be able to determine whether the scene proceeds or not. The safety director, producer, director, health and safety committee, or union delegates should also have the authority to stop a hazardous scene if they think it is too dangerous. And of course, any actor, camera operator, or other involved personnel must be able to refuse to participate if they think the scene is too dangerous to them, or if they are not sure of the proper safety procedures. They need not give a reason for refusing to participate. The scene should not be allowed to proceed until all safety questions have been resolved. A stunt coordinator, animal handler or other expert should not participate in the actual scene. It is impossible to properly supervise all aspects of a dangerous scene if that person is occupied with separate responsibilities in the scene, for example if the stunt coordinator is actually driving a stunt car. A different stunt performer should do the scene. Who Is Involved In the car chase scene described earlier, everyone in cars is po- tentially at risk. An important question is what qualifications are needed to participate in this scene? Obviously, experienced stunt performers should be driving all cars involved in the chase sequence, not just the stunt cars, since an error or panic on the part of a traffic car could be disastrous. Everyone else in the stunt cars should also be stunt performers because of the high risk of an accident. Passengers in other cars would not necessarily have to be stunt performers unless the stunt coordinator thinks the situation requires it. Experienced stunt performers should be performing all stunts where there is a high risk of injury. Extras and actors should never be asked to perform or participate in dangerous action sequences. In many less hazardous action sequences, actors can perform them with proper training. Stage fights, for example, require that actors be trained in stage combat by professional stage combat directors who actually choreograph the fight. Actors should be trained how to fall for simple action sequences such as running after someone and falling down. Actors using stage firearms must be trained in their safe use. Blank ammunition can be dangerous, as witness the death of actor Jon-Eric Hexum while doing the television series "Cover Up" in 1984. In this type of situation, it is crucial that the actors inform the director and others involved of their actual knowledge of safe procedures for the scene. The question of involvement includes the camera crew and other personnel at risk. If the camera operator is in a hazardous situation, for example, filming from the side of a cliff, then he or she should be trained in the use of appropriate safety equipment. Child Performers Using infants and children as performers in motion picture films is often unavoidable, but it is essential to ensure that the children are not exploited or exposed to unsafe conditions. Most states have child labor laws which are intended to protect child performers and models. In New York State, for example, according to Section 35 of the Arts and Cultural Law, a child under the age of 16 must be under the direction, control or supervision of the Department of Education, and a permit obtained specifying the details and time of the child's participation. This permit is obtained from the mayor or chief executive officer of the city where the filming will take place. Permits will not be issued for anything that would be harmful to the child's welfare, development or proper education, and the child can only perform what is described in the permit. The following are some concerns and requirements for child performers: 1. Infants and children are much more easily fatigued than adults. Late hours, frequent retakes, and excessive exertion are some examples of situations to be avoided or minimized. 2. There is growing concern about the effects of bright camera lighting on the eyes of children, particularly infants. At present, no standards exist but good practice would involve minimizing the amount of time children spend under bright lights. 3. Children are not permitted to perform hazardous stunts or be in the area where they are being performed. The New York State regulations, for example, state that it is "unlawful to employ a child ... In any practice that is dangerous to life or limb." This law does make provision for a Child Performer Permit for children riding a bicycle or horse. In these instances, the child is under the supervision of the State Department of Education. Of course, any child performing such an activity should have appropriate training, and they should not be permitted to participate in hazardous stunts. For example, the two Vietnamese children killed during the 1982 filming of "The Twilight Zone: A Movie" should never have been involved in scenes involving pyrotechnics. 4. Young children also should not participate in scenes which, in the opinion of a psychiatrist, would be psychologically traumatic. An example might be a young child witnessing graphic violence. 5. State laws also require that the production company hire teachers for children who are missing school. The SAG and AFTRA contracts specify requirements for number of school hours and working hours, and other relevant conditions. California also requires that teachers have training as welfare workers. Coordinating with Emergency Services When filming a dangerous scene, preparation has to be made for unforseen accidents which can risk life or property. In making these emergency preparations, various agencies can be involved, including police, fire department, hospitals, etc. In fact, their involvement might be mandatory through requirements for permits. Even if permits are not required, however, these agencies should be contacted during the planning stage for whatever assistance might be required. Fire Department The local Fire Department is responsible for enforcing fire safety on the set. If special hazards such as fire, explosions, smoke and fogs, etc. are planned, then special fire permits might be needed for those activities. There might be a requirement for a fire standby crew and apparatus during the filming. (See Chapter 10 for more information on per- mits, laws, etc.) At this planning stage, consideration should also be given to what emergency fire equipment might be needed. In a major city like New York City, the Fire Department would have adequate equipment. Sometimes, however, special problems have arisen concerning the ability of local authorities to provide on site emergency facilities. In some instances, local fire departments have expressed concern about placing fire fighting equipment on standby at the location of a fire or explosion special effect because it could impair the normal emergency response for the community. In small communities in particular, loss of fire fighting equipment in case of a disaster could deprive the community of essential services during the time it would take to replace lost equipment. In situations like this, the production company might have to provide its own emergency fire fighting and other emergency equipment and personnel. Thus it is crucial to coordinate emergency procedures with the fire department at the early planning stage. Police Department Police permits are usually required to film in city streets. This is usually so that the police can section off the area and conduct crowd and traffic control. However, if the scene is potentially dangerous, then the police should be informed at the planning stage so they can make provisions for helping in an emergency. Medical Services Emergency medical care in case of accidents is crucial and can involve coordinating with local hospitals and emergency transportation services. Information on available emergency services can be obtained from the American College of Emergency Physicians (see Appendix 4). This should be done at the planning stage and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. STANDARD PROCEDURES Obviously each type of hazardous scene will have its own detailed precautions, but there are some general guidelines that should apply to all such situations. 1. Before actors or extras are hired, they should be made aware that a hazardous scene will be performed with trained professionals and told what their role in the scene will be. This information should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. Children under the age of 16 should not be placed in hazardous situations. See the discussion of Child Performers earlier in this chapter. 3. The detailed safety procedures should be in writing and discussed well in advance of the filming of the scene with all participating personnel (including camera crew). This written report should include: * a detailed description of the stunt or other activity with safety procedures * date and approximate time of the scene * location of on-site medical facilities and backup emergency services * emergency procedures in case of accident * names of the Safety Director, and Health and Safety Committee members, and any involved experts 4. There should be adequate pre-production time for any hazardous scene. This could include adequate training and rehearsal for any actor carrying out a dangerous scene (e.g. a fight scene), or sufficient time to satisfactorily rig and test a flying scene. 5. Immediately before filming the scene, there should be a last-minute verbal briefing including the information found in #3 above. This should include a dry run rehearsal without actual execution of the stunt of special effect. Everyone involved should be clear as to their roles in the scene, and the scene should not proceed until all questions have been resolved. 6. If there is any substantial change in the procedures at any time, then another meeting must be held to confirm everyone's understanding and agreement to the change. 7. All nonessential personnel should be kept clear of the area where they would be at risk, or in the way, in case of an accident. This rule should be strictly enforced. The more people around, the greater the risk of someone wandering where they shouldn't, as well as the more people at risk in case of an accident. 8. Special procedures should be taken to protect the camera crew and others on the set. This can include shields, safety belts, respirators, etc. 9. During filming of the scene, it is essential that there be adequate communication between the Safety Director and any experts. This can include communications between the stunt coordinator and special effects coordinator, and between ground and air in helicopter or airplane scenes. Headphone type systems are preferred to hand-held communications systems for on-site communications. 10. An emergency communications system should be established to connect personnel on site with emergency services. A radio communications system is usually the best communications method. Portable telephones are a second choice. Reliance on telephone booths is not recommended for emergencies due to unreliability and busy signals. 11. There should be an absolute minimum number of repetitions of the scene to avoid tiring of stunt performers or other personnel. Fatigue and disorientation can lead to accidents. 12. All accidents must be reported and the cause investigated. Accidents related to stunts, special effects or other high risk scenes should be investigated by an independent industry/labor committee. In conclusion, if we want to decrease the high fatality and injury rate in motion picture production, then planning and carrying out dangerous activities will have to be formalized into standard procedures involving preplanning and the development of clear safety procedures. REFERENCES Actors Equity of Australia. (1983). Film Industry Recommended Safety Code. FTPAA, Actors Equity of Australia and AT&AEA (NSW Branch), Australia. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. CHAPTER 7. SPECIAL EFFECTS A wide variety of special effects are used in motion picture production to simulate real events that would otherwise be too dangerous, expensive or impractical to execute. The types of special effects include fogs, smoke, fire, pyrotechnics, firearms, snow, rain, wind, computer effects, electronics, miniatures, etc. Chapter 6 discussed general procedures for high risk activities such as special effects. In this chapter, I will discuss the hazards of special effects and suitable precautions. Since it would be impossible to cover all the possible types of special effects, I will discuss only the ones that have significant health or safety problems. The safety procedures on pyrotechnics, fire, and firearms in particular are adapted from Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and television industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. PYROTECHNICS Pyrotechnics special effects are widely used in motion picture production to create all types of effects involving explosions, fires, light, smoke and sound concussions. The types of pyrotechnics materials used include flash powder, flash paper, gun cotton, black powder (gunpowder), smokeless powder, detonator explosives, and many more. They are used in bullet hits (squibs), blank cartridges, flash pots, fuses, mortars, smoke pots, sparkle pots, etc. The main problems of pyrotechnics include prematurely triggering the pyrotechnic effect, use of larger quantities or more dangerous materials than needed, causing a fire, lack of adequate fire extinguishing capabilities, and, of course, inadequately trained and experienced pyro- technics operators. As a result of these risks, all pyrotechnics special effects are regulated at the federal, state and local level. Regulations The federal Bureau of Alcohol, Taxation and Firearms regulates the storage and use of explosives, and the Department of Transportation classifies explosives and regulates their transportation. To buy, sell, or use pyrotechnics and other explosives in interstate commerce, pyrotechnicians must have a Federal explosives license. Similarly, most states require pyrotechnicians to have a state explosives license to operate. The quality of these state licenses varies greatly, with some states requiring only an application and no examination. California requires pyrotechnicians to be licensed by the State Fire Marshall's Office. A Class 1 pyrotechnics operator can use all types of fireworks and special effects pyrotechnics, whereas a Class 2 pyrotechnics operator is restricted in the types of pyrotechnics materials he or she can use. California also has several other more restricted licenses. Some municipalities also have licensing requirements. New York City has strict requirements and does not recognize state and federal licenses. New York City has two levels of certificates of fitness, as they are called: a Class A special effects license, which enables both indoor and outdoor pyrotechnic operation; and a Class B pyrotechnician's license, which allows only indoor pyrotechnics effects and is mostly used for stage pyrotechnics. A written test and four years of apprenticeship are required to get a Class A license in New York City. In addition to licensing of pyrotechnicians, fire permits are required from the local Fire Department for each intended pyrotechnics usage. The permit requirements vary widely, but several standards groups are trying to develop general standards. In 1989, the Western Fire Chiefs Association adopted a revised Article 78, "Special Effects in Motion Picture, Television, Theatrical and Group Entertainment Productions", of the Uniform Fire Prevention Code. As of 1990, the National Fire Protection Association was in the process of developing NFPA 1126 Code for the Use of Pyrotechnics in the Entertainment Industry. In general, fire permits for pyrotechnics require a detailed description of the type and amount of pyrotechnics to be used, a detailed description of the special effects event and safety precautions to be taken, a site inspection by the Fire Department, and proof of qualifi- cations of the pyrotechnician. Any changes in the plans must be approved by the Fire Department. Some states, for example California, closely regulate explosives and pyrotechnics. The intended use and amount of the material often determines whether it is regulated as an explosive or pyrotechnic device. Many states or local authorities will also require certificates of insurance showing that the production company has adequate insurance in case a pyrotechnic special effect goes wrong. Types of Pyrotechnic Materials In general, all pyrotechnics are explosives, but not all explosives are pyrotechnics. Class A explosives (high explosives) are materials like dynamite and Primacord which may detonate even if unconfined. Pyrotechnic special effects materials are Class B explosives. They will burn, but not explode unless confined. Examples are black powder and pellet powder, safety fuses, igniters, igniter cord, fuse lighters, Class B special fireworks, and Class B composite solids propellants. Class C explosives are common fireworks. Note that short lengths of Primacord may be classified as Class C under certain conditions. Both Class B and C explo- sives are also called low explosives. All pyrotechnic materials and other explosives consist of an oxidizer (source of oxygen) and a reducer (fuel). Examples of oxidizers include potassium nitrate, strontium nitrate, potassium perchlorate and potassium chlorate. Examples of fuels include metals like magnesium and aluminum, sulfur, silicon dioxide, and organic fuels like charcoal, starch, resins, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. The choice of fuel and oxidizer determines the type of effect (flash, smoke, sound, etc.) its color, and its inten- sity. There are two basic types of pyrotechnic materials: single component and two component systems. Single component materials will either burn if ignited, or explode if ignited when enclosed, since the oxidizer and fuel are in the same mixture. Flash paper, for example, is a partially nitrated cellulose and contains both fuel and oxidizer internally. The traditional black powder has potassium nitrate as the oxidizer, and sulfur and charcoal as fuels. In two component or binary systems, the oxidizer and fuel are separate components which are transported and stored separately and only mixed when ready to use. These separate components should be prepackaged and labeled as A and B. A typical binary system could have strontium nitrate as the oxidizer component and magnesium and aluminum as the fuel. It is important to store oxidizers carefully since they can utilize many types of organic materials as fuels. Potassium chlorate, for example, is one of the best oxidizers, but is particularly dangerous because it is so reactive. Lycopodium is also used by pyrotechnicians for fire effects. It is not actually a pyrotechnics materials but a combustible material. Since it is a combustible, organic dust, it is explosive when enclosed. Transportation and Storage of Pyrotechnics 1. All transportation of pyrotechnics materials must be in accordance with the classification, labeling and packaging requirement of the Department of Transportation, and local and state regulations. 2. Storage of explosives and pyrotechnics materials should follow the recommendations of both Article 77 on Explosives, and Article 78 on Fireworks and Pyrotechnics Special Effects Materials, of the 1991 Uniform Fire Code. 3. Magazines: Explosives have to be stored in particular types of buildings or containers called magazines. The following are storage recommendations for various types of explosives. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Explosive Type Magazine Type High Explosives (Class A): 1, 2, 3 Class A detonators: 1, 2, 3 Detonating Cords: 1, 2, 3 Class C Detonators:* 1, 2, 3, 4 Low Explosives (Black powder, 1, 2, 3, 4 Class B composite solid propellants, Class B special fireworks, and Class C common fireworks) Safety fuse, electric squibs, 1, 2, 3, 4 igniters, and igniter cord**: Blasting Agents: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 * Includes electric detonators with leg wires 4 feet long or longer, or detonators with empty plastic tubing 12 feet long or longer that contains not more than 1 gram of explosives (excluding ignition and delay charges). ** Detonators are not to be stored in the same magazine with other explosive materials, except that Class C detonators and those described in the first footnote may be stored with safety fuse, electric squibs, igniters or igniter cord in Type 1, 2, 3, or 4 magazines. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. Indoor storage: Pyrotechnics materials (Class B explosives) and common fireworks stored indoors shall be located in a Type 2 or 4 magazine. Class A explosives stored indoors shall be located in a Class 2 magazine. A maximum of 50 pounds of explosives may be stored inside a building. 5. Outdoor storage: Either Type 2 or Type 4 magazines shall be used for low explosives. Type 2 magazines shall be used for high explosives. 6. Pyrotechnics materials sufficient for one day's work may be stored in a "daybox" or Type 3 portable magazine. This must have an attendant at all times. 7. Smoking, matches, open flames and spark-producing devices are not allowed inside a magazine, within 50 feet of an outdoor magazine, or within any room containing an indoor magazine. 8. Sparkproof tools shall be used to open or close containers of explosive materials. Housekeeping measures shall be taken to reduce the risk of fire. Use of Pyrotechnics 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use pyrotechnic materials. There should be a discussion of the type of pyrotechnic material to be used, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use pyrotechnics should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. Make sure that the pyrotechnic special effects operator has appropriate licenses. See the Regulations section. 3. Make sure that site permit is obtained and valid, and that appropriate insurance coverage is obtained. See the Regulations section. 4. The local Fire Department must be briefed on the proposed activity. 5. High explosives (Class A), for example, dynamite or TNT, should not be used if they are not essential for the desired effect. 6. The Special Effects Coordinator or other individual responsible for safety and the pyrotechnics operator shall remain on the set at all times as long as pyrotechnics materials are present. A security guard is also recommended. 7. The pyrotechnic material should be tested by the pyrotechnician, without spectators. During the event, all unnecessary personnel should be removed from the danger area. 8. Smoking shall not be permitted in the area where pyrotechnics materials are stored or handled, and "No Smoking" signs shall be prominently displayed. 9. All explosives and explosive devices must be shunted (short-circuited) to prevent accidental ignition. Detonation must be from a separate DC power source, and not radio-controlled. 10. When preparing pyrotechnics, all radio transmissions including mobile phones in the area must be turned off. 11. When pyrotechnic materials are used inside a building in the presence of other than employees, the quantity of smoke generated shall not interfere with visibility of exit signs or egress paths. There should be exhaust ventilation to rapidly remove the smoke (e.g. portable ventilators) since studies have shown that pyrotechnic smoke is alkaline and irritating to the eyes and respiratory system. 12. If there is a chance of setting the sprinklers off when set for auto- matic operation, then the sprinkler systems should be set to manual opera- tion, or baffled or screened off, in the immediate area where pyrotechnics materials are used. The fire department should approve any such modification. 13. There shall be at least one trained person on standby fire watch equipped with appropriate firefighting equipment. For major explosions, this could include a full-fledged firefighting crew and truck. The local Fire Department may have specific requirements. 14. No one shall be allowed back into the explosives area after the use of pyrotechnic materials until the Special Effects or Safety Coordinator signals approval. 15. Body squibs or bullet hits are considered a stunt in Ontario and are not permitted with children. No child under 16 should be close to explosives, except children who are qualified stunt performers, and who have signed permission from parent or guardian. FIRE Fire can be used in motion pictures for literally hundreds of scenes. This can include everyday uses of fire such as gas stoves, fireplaces, lit torches, kerosene lamps, bonfires, etc. as well as more destructive fires. The latter can range in scale from burning small items up to burning cars, houses, forests, etc. In many instances these fires are simulated without actually burning the whole structure. A wide variety of flammable and combustible materials have been used to create fire effects, including propane gas burners, rubber cement, gasoline, kerosene, etc. These are often used in combination with pyrotechnics special effects to give the illusion of a fire after an explosion. In stunts involving fire, a specially-equipped stunt performer is often coated with a flammable material and set on fire as he or she escape from a burning building or car. Hazards from the use of fire special effects include the involvement of inadequately trained and experienced special effects operators, the fire getting out of control, heat, poor maintenance of fire generating equipment (especially propane equipment), the use of excessive amounts of flammable materials, the presence of combustibles in the area which have not been removed or made fire resistant, and improper storage of combustible and flammable liquids and gases. Regulations Chapter 10 discusses fire prevention laws in general. Although not as strictly regulated as pyrotechnics, fire special effects still need fire permits, and in many areas the special effects operators must be licensed. In New York City, for example, you need a special fire permit to use fire effects (even a lit cigarette) on a motion picture set, and the special effects operator must have a Class B pyrotechnician's license from the New York City Fire Department for indoor fire effects, and a Class A special effects license for larger outdoor fire special effects. In general, fire special effects operators must have the same licenses as discussed in the previous pyrotechnics section. The fire permits also have similar requirements. In addition, most insurance companies have fire safety requirements. Recommendations 1. Whenever possible, use a special effect (such as flickering lights) that does not involve actual flames. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use open flames. There should be a discussion of the type of fire special effect, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use open flames should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. When using fire special effects, follow the recommendations for pyrotechnics special effects found in the previous sections. Most of these recommendations are applicable to fire special effects. 4. See Chapter 5 for general precautions on fire safety, especially related to flammable liquids and gases. The checklist at the end of Chapter 5 is particularly useful for evaluating your safety status. 5. All fire generating equipment should be properly maintained, and all gas lines meet applicable codes. Stationary open flame fixtures should be firmly secured. 6. Propane compressed gas cylinders used for indoor fire effects should be kept in a propane storage bunker while in use, and removed from the building afterwards. They are not to be left overnight. The maximum cylinder size should be 20 pounds. (See references) 7. Fires should be ignited with pre-lit Sterno, rather than with matches. 8. Each propane tank shut-off location should have an operator who has a clear view of all propane fires. 9. When using flammables and combustibles on a set as a fire accelerant, ventilation must be provided until ignition and cleanup have been completed. 10. Over the years, a variety of materials have been developed to make fire effects safer. For example, there are combustible gels and liquid fuels to replace much more hazardous rubber cement, gasoline and other flammable and extremely flammable substances. 11. All materials in the fire area should be noncombustible, removed, or flame-proofed. This includes costumes of actors in the vicinity of a flame (see Chapter 8). Appropriate fire retardant covers should be provided for cameras where necessary. 12. Stunt performers who could be directly exposed to flames should wear appropriate protective fire clothing or other protective means. See the Section on fire stunts in Chapter 8. 13. For any interior fire scene or exterior fire in an enclosed area, it is crucial to have exhaust ventilation to remove the smoke. Portable ventilators exhausted to the outside can accomplish this. Outdoors, blow- ers can be used to blow the smoke away from personnel, if needed. 14. Any fire special effects should have at least one safety person on standby fire watch equipped with appropriate firefighting equipment. For major fires (e.g. burning of a car or house) this could include a full-fledged firefighting crew and truck. If stunt performers are involved, see Chapter 8 for recommendations. FOG AND SMOKE During the 1980s, the use of fog and smoke to create atmosphere or special lighting effects greatly expanded. However the use of fogs and smokes to create special effects has a history dating back to the early days of film production. There are a wide variety of products and machines used to create smoke and fog effects, with varying degrees of hazard. This section only discusses nonexplosive materials that depend upon a change in physical state to create the effect, not a chemical reaction. Fog and smoke effects are created by generating a fine mist, a dispersion of very small particles, or an actual smoke by burning organic materials. All smokes and fogs are easily inhaled. Some chemicals used to generate the smoke or fog are toxic; however even chemicals that are not appreciably toxic can be irritating to the lungs. In particular, high risk groups such as people with asthma or other respiratory problems, children, or the elderly, and people having to do deep breathing (e.g a musician playing a wind instrument or a singer) might be more susceptible to inhalation of any material. It is often difficult to obtain information on many of these products, even from Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), because many manufacturers claim the compositions are trade secrets. Manufacturers of these products often make extravagant claims as to safety. For example, many products state that the chemicals used have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for ingestion. However, the fact that chemicals might be safe by ingestion does not mean they are necessarily safe by inhalation. Some manufacturers also claim that air sampling studies indicate that the concentration of their product in air is below the OSHA's Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). This is very misleading, however, since OSHA PELs and the Threshold Limit Values they are based upon are intended to apply to workers in industry and do not usually protect the general population, especially high risk groups as discussed above. Many manufacturers have done acute toxicity studies on their products. These animal studies only tell the effect of single exposures, and not repeated exposures. In addition, these studies would not pick up reversible, respiratory irritation which could be critical to an actor or singer. An additional problem is determining the length of exposure. The assumption is that these fogs are used only for short periods of time. However, in film production, a particular scene could be reshot many times, thus lengthening the period of exposure. In addition most productions do not have an efficient method for clearing out the fog between takes so that there can be an accumulation of the fog chemicals over a period of time. This can result in longer exposures not only for the actors, but also the film crew. In attempts to evaluate the safety of some of these fogs and smokes, unions and other groups have had these products analyzed. In addition, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and others have conducted air sampling studies in order to evaluate the safety of the products. Types of Smoke and Fogs The following discussion of the various types of smoke and fogs is based upon an accumulation of information from a variety of studies, and from actual experience in use. 1. Dry Ice: Dry ice is one of the earliest types of materials used to create fog effects. Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide, and when exposed to air it sublimes directly from a solid to a gas. The cold gas causes moisture to condense into a thick, low-lying fog. Dry ice is the safest way to generate fog except in enclosed spaces where the carbon dioxide can accumulate and reduce the oxygen concentration in the air. This could cause asphyxiation if the oxygen concentration falls below 19.5%. There would also be a hazard if someone was lying down in the dry ice fog. 2. Petroleum Distillates: Many of the earlier types of fogs were based on kerosene, fuel oil or other petroleum distillates. These were vaporized by heating to generate a fine mist. Unfortunately, inhalation of these chemi- cals caused eye and respiratory irritation, chemical pneumonia, and narcosis (dizziness, headaches, nausea, etc.). In addition, the mist of these petroleum distillates is a fire hazard. I definitely recommend against any fog product containing fuel oil or other petroleum distillates. 3. Zinc Chloride Smoke Generating Devices: A number of companies sell smoke generators based on zinc chloride (e.g. smoke cookies, smoke pots, smoke candles, smoke bombs). Some of these also contain chlorinated hydrocarbons such as perchloroethylene, a probable human carcinogen. The smoke is generated by heating or burning the product, which is classified as a Flammable Solid, D.O.S. by the Department of Transportation. These are available in sizes that generate small to very large amounts of smoke. The Material Safety Data Sheets on many of these products are not adequate and do not reflect their hazards. Use of these smoke devices in fire fighter training exercises has resulted over the years in complaints of breathing problems, chest pains, hot and cold flashes, headache, fever, fatigue, sore throat, nausea, cough and even some fatalities. Some of these symptoms might be due to chlorinated hydrocarbons, but most are due to the generation of high concentrations of hydrochloric acid from the reaction of the zinc chloride with water. In some studies, hydrochloric acid concentrations have been many times higher than OSHA PELs and even approach levels considered immediately dangerous to life or health. Even lower levels of smoke have caused symptoms. I recommend against the use of zinc chloride smoke devices, or devices based on titanium chloride and similar materials indoors or in outdoor situations where either film crew or actors could be exposed to any substantial amount of the smoke. 4. Ammonium Chloride: Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) is a common method of generating smoke on stage and outdoors. The smoke is created by heating the ammonium chloride. Air sampling studies have found large concentrations of ammonium chloride, in some instances near the OSHA PEL for nuisance dusts. Air sampling studies have also shown that some decomposition of the ammonium chloride to hydrogen chloride occurs during this heating. The hydrogen chloride dissolves in water in the respiratory system to produce hydrochloric acid, a respiratory irritant. The levels of hydrochloric acid are much smaller than those caused by the zinc chloride smoke devices, but are still high enough to cause concern. It is not recommended that ammonium chloride be used indoors or in enclosed spaces. 5. Mineral Oil: This includes oil crackers and diffusion foggers. Oil crackers involved bubbling air through a drum of mineral oil. The air bubbles reaching the surface contained "cracked" oil of particle size 1-50 microns. This oil is not "cracked" in the sense of chemically breaking down the oil, but is merely creating smaller droplet size. This has also been used in combination with dry ice. The diffusion fogger produces a mineral mist of less than 1 micron size by using a compressor to force mineral oil through fine filters. Air sampling studies by California OSHA in an enclosed sound stage 90' by 75' by 30' found that ten minutes of fogging produced mineral oil concentrations for almost 2 hours that were 50% to 90% of the OSHA 8-hour PEL for mineral oil. However this PEL for mineral oil is based on its use as a cutting oil in industry; no toxicological studies have been made on inhalation of mineral oil of particle size less than one micron. There is concern about long term health problems such as lipid pneumonia, since the very fine mineral oil mist gets deep into the lungs and stays there. This is not recommended for use indoors. 6. Vegetable Oils: Corn oil and similar vegetable oils are used in the same manner as mineral oil above. Although vegetable oils are suitable for eating, little information is available about effects of inhalation. Definitely, only food-grade oil should be used to ensure there is no contamination by molds like aflatoxin, which is carcinogenic. Use with caution. 7. Glycol Fogs: During the last decade, a whole range of products have been developed that use mixtures of water and polyfunctional alcohols, including ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol and glycerin. With some exceptions, these appear to be safer than most of the other fogs and smokes, except for dry ice. Ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol are toxic by ingestion, causing kidney damage and possible death; the other glycols mentioned are considered only slightly toxic. Ethylene glycol has been removed from most fogs after studies showed that it is a teratogen (can cause birth defects). Unfortunately long-term studies have not been done on inhalation of the mists of most of these glycols, although respiratory irritation is sometimes listed on Material Safety Data Sheets. A more serious concern is how the fog is generated. These mixtures are heated in a fog machine to a temperature near 600 F. One air sampling study found significant levels of acrolein in the mist generated, about 20% of the OSHA PEL. Acrolein is a strong respiratory and eye irritant. NIOSH is conducting studies on various fogs to determine the extent of this decomposition product. It is likely that some chemicals could generate more decomposition products than others. Reformulation and finding ways to reduce the temperature needed to create the mist are possible solutions. Despite these problems, at this time, the glycol fogs are probably the least hazardous fogs to use, although some will most likely turn out to be safer than others. 8. Burning Organic Materials: The burning of gums such as olibanum gum (frankincense), paper, and other materials can also generate smoke. These smokes are irritating and considerable amounts of carbon monoxide may also be generated. In addition to the smoke hazards, there is the concern about the open flames. These materials should not be burned inside or where people would be exposed to substantial amounts of smoke. Regulations Although not as hazardous as pyrotechnics or fire, smoke and fog on motion picture sets is regulated by many Fire Departments. In New York City, for example, you need a fire permit to use smoke or fog, just as you do for pyrotechnics. Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use smoke or fogs and the type to be used. Before the filming, there should be a discussion of the hazards and precautions being taken. This should be listed on the call sheet. (See Chapter 6 for more details on procedures.) 2. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on all smoke and fog products. In particular, note whether the Reactivity section lists any hazardous decomposition products. 3. The choice of product depends on whether it will be used indoors or outdoors, in enclosed spaces, and whether people will be exposed for any significant period. 4. Children, the elderly, and people with respiratory problems should be informed of their possible higher risks. A medical opinion should be obtained. 5. Use only chemicals recommended by the manufacturer of particular fog and smoke machines. Other materials may clog, or otherwise interfere with proper operation of the machine. Keep the fog machine in good repair and use as instructed. 6. Use the minimum concentration of smoke for the minimum period of time necessary. Avoid heavy concentrations when people are exposed. 7. Only allow essential personnel on the set when using smoke and fog effects. Also evacuate any nearby areas (e.g. dressing rooms, classrooms) where the smoke could travel. 8. On interior sets or in enclosed areas, the crew should wear respirators. Respirators should also be available for anyone wanting one in any situation. All respirators should be NIOSH-approved. The following table lists the types of respirators to use with different mists and fogs: ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Respirator Selection for Smoke and Fog dry ice - none needed; test oxygen concentration in enclosed spaces. zinc chloride - acid gas cartridge and dusts and mist filter; high concentrations need air-supplied respirators ammonium chloride - acid gas cartridge and dusts and mists filter mineral oil - dusts and mists filter glycol fogs - organic vapor cartridge and dusts and mists filter burning materials - dusts and mists filter for smoke; ventilation also needed to remove carbon monoxide ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9. On interior sets or in enclosed areas, rapidly exhaust the smoke vertically and laterally between takes. If this is not a permanent set, portable ventilators of the type used in manholes can be used (e.g. Coppus Engineering Corporation, Milbury, MA). Outdoors, large fans can be used to blow away the smoke. 10. Minimize the number of takes to further reduce exposure of personnel. 11. When burning organic materials, have a fire watch on hand. (See also the section on Fires.) FIREARMS Handguns, rifles, shotguns, and machine guns are all used in film production, sometimes even using live ammunition, although this is rare today. Obvious hazards of firearms include accidental shooting of someone, or a malfunction of the firearm causing it to explode. Unfortunately a lot of people think that blank ammunition is safe and take chances with it. There have been many accidents involving blank ammunition, one of the most infamous being the 1984 fatal shooting of Jon Eric-Hexum during the filming of the TV series "Cover-Up". He pointed the gun at his head and pulled the trigger, not realizing that blank ammunition can cause death. A normal blank cartridge is a metal case with a percussion primer which is filled with smokeless powder or other propellant and topped with a wax paper wad. When fired, the smokeless powder ignites and causes a flash of hot gases and report. The wad is ejected at high velocity unless the gun barrel is blocked. If too much powder is used, the danger increases. In recent years, the industry has developed safety blanks, which are a specially formulated, plastic insert with a primer and flash powder. There is no wad to be ejected; there is a flash and noise only. In addition, blank adapters have been developed for use with machine guns to give off a flash only. Blank-loaded guns are generally used in combination with bullet hits to simulate the actual bullet impact. A bullet hit or squib is a plastic-cased detonator which is imbedded in the object to be struck by the bullet and detonated at the same time as the gun. Technically, bullet hits are pyrotechnics materials and all the regulations and recommendations presented earlier apply to them. One of the major potential hazards with bullet hits occurs when the bullet hit is imbedded in a person's clothing. In this instance, protective shields have to be worn to ensure the person is not struck by fragments of the exploding casing. Children should never be equipped with bullet hits. In addition to the safety hazards of firearms, gunshots fired too close to people can cause hearing loss. This can also occur from blanks. Regulations As with pyrotechnics there are special federal, state and local regulations concerning firearms. A federal firearms license is needed to receive a gun in the mail from another state. With a federal firearms license, you can also rent a handgun. To rent a handgun in New York State, you must be a New York State resident, and notify authorities in writing. The gun has to be checked by Ballistics to show it is deactivated. For shotguns and rifles, the property master or armorer needs a theatrical license, and for machine guns a special machine gun license. To use a firearm in New York City, you need a permit from the Mayor's Office of Film, and you must notify the Police Department. Other states have different regulations. In California, for example, you need at least a Class 2 pyrotechnic operator license to use blank cartridges, although with a Class 3 license you can load blanks under the supervision of a Class 1 or 2 operator. In California, you do not need to deactivate a firearm for use in motion pictures and even live ammunition can be used, although we oppose this practice. Selection of Firearms and Ammunition 1. Live ammunition should never be used. 2. Only firearms that have been deactivated should be used. The firearm should be deactivated, modified or repaired only by qualified gunsmiths with the approval of the manufacturer. 3. Only use the particular type of ammunition designed for a specified firearm. 4. Do not modify factory-loaded blank ammunition. Use the lightest and safest loads of blank ammunition possible, preferably safety blanks. Do not use crimped blanks unless specifically required. 5. Manufacturer guidelines for weapons and ammunition should always be followed. 6. The property manager or armorer should have all needed licenses and permits for the types of firearms to be used, and should be knowledgeable about the applicable federal, state and local laws concerning transporta- tion, storage and use of firearms. 7. The property manager should be an expert in safe handling, loading, unloading, and safety features of the particular types of firearms to be used, or consult an expert who is knowledgeable. 8. The property master should know all the expiration dates, manufacturer warnings, and storage and handling procedures associated with the blank ammunition being used. Firearms on the Set 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use firearms. No one should be required to use a firearm. All performers using handguns must be given instruction in their proper and safe handling. This should be listed on the call sheet. More details on general safety procedures are found in Chapter 6. 2. Non-firing, facsimile guns should be used whenever possible. Even if firearms are to be used in a scene, rehearsal should be done with non-firing weapons. 3. The property master should have time to discuss the use of firearms in a scene and related safety requirements with the director and assistant directors. 4. The property master is responsible for instruction of performers in the safe use of guns. Firearms should never be given to someone without first determining that he or she is knowledgeable in their proper and safe use. 5. All ammunition and firearms - even private ones - should be turned over to the property master or other designated firearms expert when the weapons come on the set. Except when filming or for necessary rehearsals, all firearms should be locked up by the property master. 6. No smoking signs must be posted where powder or blank ammunition is stored. 7. All firearms should always be treated as if they were loaded. A loaded firearm should always have the safety on, if one is present. Guns should never be pointed at anyone, even when being fired during a scene. This is especially a problem with shotguns. Playing around with firearms should be forbidden. 8. The crew and other personnel on the set should be warned prior to firing of weapons. 9. Firearms should be loaded and unloaded only by the property master or other experienced person under the property master's supervision. Loading should occur just before filming. Guns should be unloaded at the end of a scene and locked up by the property master (even between takes). 10. A firearm should never be fired if the barrel is clogged with dirt or other foreign matter. The gun should never be put down in such a way as to clog the barrel or workings. 11. Jams and malfunctions should only be worked on by the property master or qualified assistant. If the cause of malfunction is unknown, the gun should be taken out of use until the property masters determines it is safe. 12. Shields consisting of at least 1/2-inch thick plexiglass should be used by camera personnel for point blank shots; there should also be protective shields for other off-camera people in close proximity to blanks fired from weapons. 13. Off-camera personnel should wear safety goggles and hearing protectors during scenes involving the discharge of firearms. If possible, the performers should also wear ear plugs. 14. Guns should be checked and cleaned before and after each use and inventoried after each day's use by the property master. LASERS A laser is a device that can produce or amplify light of a particular wavelength or range of wavelengths. Laser beams can cause eye damage, skin damage, and present other hazards depending on the type of laser. Lasers are classified into categories based on their hazards. Class 1 lasers are the lowest power lasers and do not emit hazardous levels of energy under normal operating conditions. Class IIa lasers are low power lasers which represent eye hazards only if viewed for more than 1000 seconds; Class II lasers are considered chronic hazards from any prolonged viewing. Class IIIa lasers, usually less than 5 milliwatts power, are chronic eye hazards and may be acute eye hazards by viewing through optical instruments or directly. Class IIIb lasers can extend in power up to 0.5 watts, and are both acute skin and eye hazards from direct radiation. Class IV lasers are lasers of power greater than 0.5 watts which are acute skin and eye hazards by both direct and scattered radiation. Regulations The use of lasers is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health (formerly the Bureau of Radiological Health) under Public Law 90-602, "The Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968." Lasers for use in entertainment, such as light shows where the public is present, are regulated as demonstration lasers. Under these regulations, reports on the laser and the light show have to be filed. These regulations only allow the use of Class I, IIa, II, and IIIa lasers. To use Class IIIb or Class IV lasers in a light show, a variance must be obtained. This variance spells out in detail exactly how the laser can be used. Lasers that are used on closed motion picture sets (no public allowed) are regulated by OSHA under the general duty clause, rather than by the FDA. OSHA usually uses the ANSI standard for laser safety (see references at the end of the chapter). Unfortunately, this standard is mostly aimed at industrial use of lasers. If an outside company is used to provide the laser light show effects for a motion picture, they would have to have a variance for a laser stronger greater than Class IIIa, and must use trained operators. Even though the FDA regulations are not mandatory for closed motion picture sets with no public, they do represent good practice and I recommend using them. In addition to federal regulations, there can be state and local regulations. At present, New York State is the only state that requires licensing of laser operators. Some other states like Texas require that lasers be operated by qualified personnel without defining the term "qualified". Many states and cities require licensing of lasers. Outdoor laser shows involving projection into open airspace, including testing, require prior approval of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Recommendations The following recommendations are based on the FDA recommendations for laser light shows and displays. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use lasers. There should be a discussion of the hazards and precautions being taken. This should be listed on the call sheet. 2. All lasers must be labeled with their classification and appropriate warnings. If the laser is more powerful than Class IIIa, obtain a copy of the variance if an outside laser consultant is used. Also check the certification of the laser and qualifications of the laser operator. 3. All lasers must have a protective housing which prevents exposure to more than Class I radiation levels, and safety interlocks so the laser cannot operate when the laser or protective housing is removed. Class IIIb or IV lasers must have a key-actuated master control. 4. There should be written procedures for setting up, alignment, and testing of lasers prior to use. 5. Only Class I lasers may be directly viewed (that is, the laser beam coming from the front). However, as a matter of good practice, no one should stare at a laser beam. Appropriate laser goggles should be worn as needed. 6. According to the FDA regulations, employees can be exposed to Class II and IIa laser radiation levels as long as any direct viewing is only by accident for very brief periods. However, for casual extras and actors who are not trained in the hazards of lasers, it is recommended that they be considered as audience and only be exposed to Class I radiation levels. Laser operators and other trained crew could be exposed to Class II levels. 7. Class IIIa, IIIb, and IV lasers should not contact any part of the human body. For unattended lasers, the radiation levels should not exceed Class II levels inside a region 6 meters above the floor, 2.5 meters below the floor, and 2.5 meters laterally from where a person could stand. If a laser operator is present, the vertical separation could be 3 meters. The laser beam can be less than 2.5 meters in lateral distance or below the floor if physical barriers prevent access to higher than Class II levels. The laser operator should have a clear view of all laser beams and people in the area, and have no other responsibilities. 8. Audience scanning involves the passing of direct or reflected laser beams of radiation exceeding Class I levels across the audience. This could be achieved directly or through the use of rotating mirrored balls, for example. The amount of audience exposure must be reduced to below Class I levels by scanning devices. The scanning device must have a scanning safeguard to rapidly shut off the laser if a malfunction of the scanner increases exposure to laser radiation above these levels. In some instances the rotating mirrored balls might also need scanning safeguards since if the mirror rotation slowed or stopped, there could be an increased exposure to laser radiation in certain locations. 9. Laser radiation levels scattered by fogs, smoke, mist or similar diffusing media should be at Class I levels where actors could be exposed. 10. All lasers should have emergency shut-offs in case of any malfunction. OTHER SPECIAL EFFECTS Breakaway Glass and Other Props A wide variety of materials are used to make breakaway props such as bottles, windows, chairs, and tables. These can include thin layers of certain plastics, sugar glass, chilled paraffin wax, scored thin plexiglas, soft balsa wood, plastic foams, etc. Some breakaway resins contain flammable solvents (see Solvents and Thinners section of Chapter 4). Nails and screws should never be used in the manufacture of breakaway objects; they should be lightly glued or fastened with materials like toothpicks. The crucial considerations are that the material break apart easily so that an actor is not injured if he or she is hit with the object or falls on it, and that it not shatter and send fragments flying that could injure someone. Chemicals The special effects literature contains many examples of chemicals that have been used to create special effects. Some of these are fairly innocuous, for example the use of solutions of ferric chloride and potassium thiocyanate, which produce fake blood when combined. Others are considered very hazardous, for example the mixture of carbon disulfide with yellow phosphorus to create a self-igniting mixture. The latter two chemicals are both fire and health hazards, and should not be used. In many instances old mixtures found in the literature were abandoned because of their hazards. Before using any chemicals for special effects (or other purposes), Material Safety Data Sheets should be obtained on the chemicals to ascertain the hazards of the chemicals. But you can't stop there. You also have to find out the hazards of combining the chemicals, possible effects of heat or other conditions, and proper disposal of left-over chemicals. In many instances, for example the yellow phosphorus/carbon disulfide mixture, the chemicals are too hazardous to safely use and substitutes should be sought. Dust Dust and sand are used for a wide variety of scenes, including anything from desert or beach scenes to dust storms. If materials are used to simulate sand, then it is crucial to ensure that the substitute is safe. For example, vermiculite, which can contain up to 5% asbestos depending on the source, has been commonly used as a sand substitute. Even with dusts that are not toxic, inhalation should be avoided to the extent possible because any dust getting into the lungs can cause generalized irritation, and asthmatics or people with respiratory problems can be more susceptible. Repeated reuse of sand by sweeping off the floor can result in contami- nation of the sand with other materials. Organic dusts used in enclosed spaces (e.g. flour, fine sawdust) can explode in the presence of a spark or other source of ignition. Flying Flying involves the use of rigging to move objects through the air to give the illusion of flying. This can involve an object or person. The recent "Superman" films are a classic example. The performer must be properly equipped with a harness connected by wires to the rigging system. The harness has to be secure and still give the proper illusion. If only one cable is used, it must be at least 1/8 inch in diameter, and made of stainless aircraft cable. See Chapter 5 for a general discussion of rigging precautions. Lightning Lightning effects can be generated in a variety of ways, many of them hazardous. One of the older methods involves use of carbon arcs. Carbon arcs produce an intense blue flash with large amounts of intense ultraviolet radiation and hazardous carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and metal fumes being emitted. I recommend against the use of carbon arcs. Another dangerous method which should be avoided is applying an electric current to a shaped wire until it incandesces. Other, safer methods include strobes, pulsed xenon photoflash units, Van der Graaf generators, etc. All of these will involve electrical hazards. See the Electrical section in Chapter 5. Mercury Mercury has been used or proposed for use in a number of instances. Its high density, silvery appearance, and the way it breaks up into small globules has attracted some special effects personnel. Unfortunately, mercury is very volatile and is highly toxic by inhalation and skin absorption. High, acute exposures can cause chest pain, shortness of breath, and chemical pneumonia; chronic exposure can cause skin allergies, kidney damage, tremors, gum problems, memory problems, mood and personality changes, and difficulty in concentrating. The hot lights used in filming will increase the amount of vaporization of the mercury. In addition, there is a risk of spills which can be difficult to clean up safely and adequately. Therefore, I recommend against using mercury in special effects due to the extraordinary precautions required. Miniatures The main hazards associated with miniature sets is in the materials used to make them (see Chapter 4). An additional problem in miniature sets comes when filming in an enclosed set. There have been complaints of fatigue, nausea, headaches, etc. This can come from the buildup in concen- tration of chemicals off-gassing from set materials, or even decomposition of set materials (e.g. plastic foams) by the heat from inadequately insulated lights. Portable ventilators can be used to provide fresh air to these enclosed sets. See also Remote-Controlled Effects. Noise Intense noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. This could be a threat to actors, camera crew or others in close proximity to loud noises such as those caused by gunshots or sonic flashes. If personnel have to be close to such noise, they should be wearing protective ear plugs or ear muffs. If possible, however, try to eliminate, isolate, or reduce the noise level so ear plugs are not needed. Rain When using rain effects with water, ensure that the water can't contact electrical outlets or equipment. Installation of ground fault circuit interrupters with alternating current is recommended. Care should be taken to ensure that actors who get wet have a warm, dry location to dry off between takes. If the temperature is below freezing, then icy and slippery conditions are another hazard. Recycled water can be a hazard if it becomes contaminated. Rigging and piping for rain machines can be hazardous if they come in contact with high power lines; this caused a fatality while filming "Men Don't Leave" in Baltimore in 1988. Remote-Controlled Effects Remote controlled model cars and airplanes (or full sized ones), robots, etc. are an increasingly important type of special effect. The controller can either be an individual or a computer. Precautions should be taken to ensure that accidental activation of remote-controlled devices can not occur. This could lead to accidents. It is also important to ensure that abort procedures are developed to enable stopping the action in an emergency. Pyrotechnics should never be radio-controlled due to the risk of stray radio signals from elsewhere setting off the pyrotechnics at the wrong time. Snow Artificial snow is often made of shredded paper, polypropylene or similar plastics. Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets on any artificial snow materials used in order to ensure that irritating chemicals are not present. Although most types of artificial snow are not hazardous by themselves, sweeping the material up and reusing it has resulted in respiratory and eye irritation, and allergic reactions due to contamination with molds and other materials that are on the floor. Do not reuse artificial snow. Crew should use dust masks to avoid inhalation. Note that these artificial snows are often combustible and should not be used near flames or heated surfaces. Paper can be flame-proofed. Real snow and crushed ice is also used. Snow and ice-making machines can generate dangerous levels of carbon monoxide and should only be used with ventilation. In addition real ice and snow are a hazard in close proximity to unprotected electrical equipment. Special Effects Make-Up A variety of make-up materials can be used for special effects. Adhesive materials can be used to adhere hairpieces, beards, artificial noses, and appliances (other facial and body parts). Making of Appliances: In the past, appliances were often made from putty, wax and similar materials. Today, foam latex rubber, silicone rubber molding compounds, polyurethane rubber and foams, etc. are also used to make appliances. The major hazard from latex rubber is possible skin irritation and possibly serious allergies from some of the ingredients. Many also contain some ammonia, a skin, eye and respiratory irritant. The catalysts in some two-component rubber molding materials are organic peroxides, which are severe eye irritants and are possible fire hazards. Polyurethane systems are the most dangerous because of the very hazardous isocyanates, which can cause severe and possibly even life-threatening asthma at extremely low concentrations. I recommend against their use. The hazards of the polyurethane, epoxy and polyester resins, and of adhe- sives, is discussed in more detail in the Props and Models section of Cha- pter 4. Applying and removing appliances: In the past, spirit gum was commonly used for adhering appliances and other types of prostheses. Spirit gum, however, tended to cause allergic reactions. In recent years a variety of medical adhesives have come into common use. The solvents contained in these adhesive materials, and the solvents needed to remove the adhesive are one source of problems. Skin contact with solvents can cause irritation, especially in sensitive areas like the neck, back and chest. Removal of these adhesive products with solvents such as acetone and mineral spirits can cause drying and irritation of the skin. Isopropyl myristate is probably the safest solvent to use when practical, although some people can develop allergic reactions to it. Use of a solvent-resistant barrier cream (e.g. Derma Guard) or protective skin coating can help protect the skin from the effects of solvents, although it may interfere with adhesion. Inhalation of solvent vapors during application of adhesives, and their removal may cause intoxication and other symptoms. Measures should be taken to minimize inhalation and use of fans to blow solvent vapors away from the face is recommended. (See the Solvents and Thinners section of Chapter 4.) The most common problems in removing appliances, however, is skin damage from careless, rough or improper removal which tears off the top layer of skin, and skin irritation from excess rubbing of skin with tissues and solvents during the removal process. Water Use of natural bodies of water or large tanks of water for special effects will be discussed in the next chapter on Stunts. Here, I am only discussing the smaller scale studio use of water for such effects as dripping taps, fountains, sinks, etc. The major concern is the water coming in contact with electrical equipment due to spills or leaks. Use of ground fault circuit interrupters on equipment within six feet of water should be standard in such a situation. Weapons A wide variety of weapons are used in filming, including knives, spears, swords, bows and arrows, crossbows, etc. Firearms were considered in an earlier section. The major criterion is that the weapon must look authentic, and be safe. Weapons such as swords and knives must be strong enough that they will not accidentally break into dangerous, flying pieces during a fight scene. There are many ways of simulating injuries with weapons, including knives and swords with retractable blades, spring-loaded arrows and knives which are attached to the body and spring up on command to simulate a hit, reverse filming, blades with a reservoir of simulated blood in them, and hidden sockets for knives built into protective clothing. Actual fight scenes involving weapons will be discussed in the next chapter on stunts. Wind Wind effects can involve the use of high-powered fans and compressed air systems. The high powered fans must be properly secured to make sure they won't move around, and should be properly screened to protect people. If the fans are blowing dust or other materials, precautions should be taken to protect eyes in particular, and to ensure that combustible materials are not blown in the direction of heated surfaces. High pressure hoses for compressed air must be properly secured to prevent the hoses from flying around. If the fans are gas-powered, then precautions have to be taken against fire when refueling (see Chapter 5). REFERENCES American National Standards Institute. (1986). ANSI Z136.1-1986, Safe Use of Lasers. ANSI, New York. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Office of Compliance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health. (1988). Regulations for the Administration and Enforcement of the Radiation Control Health and Safety Act of 1968. CFR 1000, CFR 1002, CFR 1040. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring. Office of Compliance, Center for Devices and Radiological Health. (1988). Reporting Guide for Laser Light Shows and Displays, HHS Publication FDA 81-8140. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Western Fire Chiefs Association. (1991). Uniform Fire Prevention Code: Article 77, Explosives; Article 78, Special Effects in Motion Picture, Television, Theatrical and Group Entertainment Productions. WFCA. Zeller, G. (1984). The Art of Fire. Zeller International, Downsville. Zeller, G. (1989). Propane Storage Bunker For Special Effects. Zeller International, Downsville. CHAPTER 8. STUNTS As discussed in Chapter 1, the Screen Actors Guild, in a 1982 study, found that the major causes of injuries and illnesses in films were falls, smoke and chemical inhalation, auto accidents, fight scenes, equipment failure, horses, and motorcycles. Most of these examples are stunt-related, where a stunt can be defined as any action sequence that involves a greater than normal risk of injury to performers or others on the set. This can include falls, fight scenes, car chases, helicopter sequences, horse riding, diving, etc. In many situations, actors are doubled by stunt performers who have extensive experience and training in carrying out hazardous action sequences. Often, however, these scenes are performed by, or involve actors who do not have appropriate or sufficient training in stunts. STUNT PERFORMER QUALIFICATIONS Since 1980, 21 people have been killed in filming and performing stunts, 8 of them stunt performers. There are not adequate statistics on the number of people that have been injured performing stunts, or in the vicinity of stunts. With the high potential for accidents in the carrying out of stunts, the qualifications of the stunt performer become essential. At present there is no standard method for evaluating the qualifications of a stunt performer comparable to those for pyrotechnics operator. This means that anyone can call themselves a stunt performer and a director has no objective way to evaluate their qualifications beyond word of mouth. In recent years, the various stunt performers associations and performers' unions have lobbied for a standard classification system for stunt performer qualifications. Under one proposal developed by the SAG/AFTRA Stunt and Safety Committees, a classification system would establish three levels of stunt performers: Group A, Group B, and Group C. A Qualifications Committee would be established to evaluate and review the qualifications of the stunt performers. C-rated stunt performers would be entry level, including anyone who is employed for at least one day as a stunt performer. C-rated stunt performers would have to be directly supervised by a qualified stunt coordinator. To achieve a Group B rating, a stunt performer would have to have completed a minimum of two years as a C-rated stunt performer with a minimum of 30 days of actual work as a stunt performer. In addition, the stunt performer would have to pass a safety test. A B-rated stunt performer could plan and carry out a stunt not involving any other performers. If other performers would be involved, the B-rated stunt performer would have to be supervised by a stunt coordinator. Group A stunt performers would be stunt coordinators. Under this proposal a stunt coordinator would have to have five years experience as a B-rated stunt performer with a minimum of 180 days of actual work. A classification system for stunt performers is desperately needed. Unfortunately, this proposal was rejected in 1991 by the AMPTP on the basis it would create "legal problems". The AMPTP, however, has not proposed any alternatives. GENERAL STUNT PROCEDURES Chapter 6 discussed planning for stunts and other high risk filming situations. I am going to summarize the discussion here. There are two stages involved: preplanning and the development of safe procedures for the stunt. The preplanning stage involves reviewing the script for hazardous scenes, and evaluation of the risk of the proposed scene. Planning how to do a scene safely involves asking the questions: Is there a safer way to do the scene? Who is in charge? Who does the scene? What outside agencies should be involved? What safety procedures are needed for the scene? As discussed in detail in Chapter 6, the general procedures include: 1. Notification of all personnel of intention to perform a stunt 2. A detailed briefing including stunt details, hazards, who is involved, location of emergency medical facilities, emergency procedures, and names of responsible safety personnel 3. Adequate rehearsal time 4. Last minute briefing with dry run 5. Another meeting if there are substantial changes in the stunt details 6. Clearing all unnecessary personnel off set 7. Adequate communications between personnel and for emergencies It would be impossible to cover all the types of stunts common in film production. Therefore I am choosing to discuss the types of stunts that have been most involved as causes of injuries and fatalities. The stunt safety procedures for helicopters, aircraft, action vehicles, fire, high falls, animals, water stunts, and skydiving are adapted from Safety Bulletins Recommended by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry, and from Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario, developed by the Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. In some instances I have expanded the recommendations. AIRCRAFT Helicopters and fixed wing aircraft are used for filming from the air and in stunts, both situations involving high risks. Helicopter accidents, in particular, have caused many fatalities. Since 1980, 14 of the 30 people killed while filming were involved in helicopter accidents. In addition, 5 people have been killed while in helicopters while en route to a location or in other film-related situations. Fatalities include pilots, stunt performers, actors, camera crew, directors, etc. - in other words, anyone in the area is at risk in a helicopter accident. By comparison, only one person has been killed since 1980 while filming in an airplane. The reason for many of these accidents is often the use of pilots who are inexperienced in the stunts and maneuvers common in film piloting. As a result they agree to perform stunts or maneuvers for which they are neither adequately prepared nor trained. They may not recognize the actual risks involved. In addition, fatalities have occurred from other personnel failing to obey basic safety procedures while working around and in helicopters. Federal Aviation Administration Regulations The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the use of helicopters and other aircraft. Minimum Safe Altitudes Section 91.79 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR 91.79) specifies minimum safe altitudes for aircraft. Section 91.79(b) requires, in congested areas, a minimum of 1000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2000 feet. Section 91.79(c) specifies a minimum altitude of 500 feet above the surface in non-congested areas, except over open water or in sparsely populated areas. In the latter case, aircraft cannot operate closer than 500 feet to people, vehicles, or structures. Section 91.79(c) says that helicopters may operate at less than the above minimum altitudes if the operation "is conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface." The FAA Administrator can prescribe specific routes and altitudes. The FAA has made special provisions for waiving the minimum altitude requirements of sections 91.79(b) and (c) for motion picture and television filming production. This waiver is required for all aircraft moviemaking operations occurring below the minimum altitudes found in sections 91.79(b) and (c). This includes helicopters, since the Office of Flight Operations has determined through operational history that low altitude moviemaking operations may create a hazard. The FAA requires the development, and acceptance by the FAA, of a "Motion Picture and Television Flight Operations Manual" with criteria and guidelines for proper operation in order to provide maximum safety and protection. The FAA says it will issue a waiver for flight closer than 500 feet only for "consenting participants directly connected with the approved filming sequences". The Flight Operations Manual must contain at least the following: persons authorized within 500 feet, area of operations, permissions to operate from owners and authorities, security plans, procedures for briefing production personnel, certificate of airworthiness, minimum requirements for pilot personnel, and plan of communications. Pilot Qualifications The FAA minimum requirements for pilots on films are: 1) a current U.S. Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot Certificate with ratings appropriate to the category and class of aircraft to be used; 2) at least 500 hours logged as pilot in command; 3) a minimum of 100 hours in the category and class of aircraft to be used; 4) at least 5 hours in the make and model aircraft to be used; and 5) in event of acrobatic maneuvers below 1500 feet, a "statement of competency" specific to operations that will be performed. Many film pilots and FAA personnel believe that the FAA minimum of 500 hours piloting does not provide enough experience or skills needed for film piloting, and that a ratings system should be established for professional film and TV pilots. Helicopters Helicopters can be hazardous while flying, hovering and even while on the ground. The following are recommended precautions. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use helicopters. As discussed earlier, the FAA requires that consent be obtained from all personnel who would be within 500 feet of a helicopter in the air. There should be a discussion of the details of the helicopter scenes, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use helicopters in a scene should also be listed on the call sheet. A possible wording is: "An aircraft is being used and will be flown in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. There should be an independent aviation consultant, who is not the pilot, to recommend and oversee safety procedures. The use of an independent consultant should be mandatory if more than one helicopter or aircraft are involved. In that situation, a pilot who is flying his own helicopter cannot oversee others. Sources of such expertise are the Professional Helicopter Pilots Association on the west coast, and the Helicopter Association International, a Dallas referral service. 3. The aviation consultant (or pilot) is the authority on all aspects of helicopter safety and should be consulted on all questions related to helicopter use. 4. Plot plans and graphics should be prepared to locate landing areas, intended flight plans, designated emergency landing sites, and filming location, as well as types of explosives and squibs. 5. The pilot will have final approval of all aerial traverse and hovering positions of the helicopter. 6. One individual should be in charge of ground to air radio communication. This communications shall be on a single channel and operate at all times during operation of the helicopter. 7. The individual in charge of the helicopter support truck should be responsible for direct safety around the helicopter. 8. Smoking should not be allowed within 50 feet of the helicopter. 9. Only required personnel should be closer than 50 feet from the helicopter. 10. Use extreme caution when working around helicopters, particularly if the motor is running. Always approach and leave the helicopter from the front of the craft; avoid the rear and tail sections and never walk under the tail. 11. Carry all equipment parallel to the ground, when within 50 feet of the helicopter; never extend equipment vertically into rotor blades. This is to prevent contact with the rotor blades. 12. Do not throw any debris onto the ground around the helicopter. The landing area should be cleared of debris that could fly into the air. The ground can be wet down, if necessary. 13. Protect eyes and equipment when the helicopter is landing or taking off. 14. All helicopter occupants, including pilots, shall wear flight helmets. 15. If the helicopter door is removed for the camera operators to shoot from, all occupants should wear seat belts and have safety harnesses. The cameras should be secured separately from operators. 16. Appropriate safety measures approved by the pilot shall be taken when filming with the engine running. Crew and equipment shall be protected from flying debris caused by operating engines. 17. In combined vehicle/helicopter stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to the stunt drivers and pilot. 18. In helicopter stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the pilot must have the authority to abort if he or she feels the stunt is hazardous to the helicopter or any personnel. Fixed Wing Airplanes Fixed wing aircraft have their own set of hazards, both in the air, and while taxiing or maneuvering on the ground. Many of the same safety procedures for helicopters also apply to airplanes. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use airplanes. As discussed earlier, the FAA requires that consent be obtained from all personnel who would be within 500 feet of an aircraft in the air. There should be a discussion of the details of the scenes, involving aircraft, the hazards and precautions being taken, and a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on procedures can be found in Chapter 6. The intention to use aircraft in a scene should be listed on the call sheet. A possible wording is: "An aircraft is being used and will be flown in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. There should be an independent aviation consultant on the ground who is not the pilot to recommend and oversee safety procedures. This independent consultant should be mandatory if more than one helicopter or aircraft are involved since a pilot who is flying his own aircraft cannot oversee others, or if an aerial coordinator is required by a government agency. 3. The aviation consultant (or pilot) is the authority on all aspects of airplane safety and should be consulted on all questions related to use of the aircraft. Stunt details will not be changed without the approval of the pilot and aviation consultant, if any. They must have the authority to abort a sequence. 4. Plot plans and graphics should be prepared to locate landing areas, intended flight plans, designated emergency landing sites, and filming location, as well as types of explosives and squibs. 5. One individual should be in charge of ground to air radio communication. This communication shall be on a single channel, and be continuous during operation of the aircraft. 6. The individual in charge of the airplane support truck should be responsible for safety around the aircraft. 7. Smoking is not allowed within 100 feet of the aircraft or support truck. 8. As per FAA regulations, only required personnel with written or verbal permission should be allowed closer than 500 feet from the aircraft. 9. A licensed pilot should be in the pilot's seat and in control whenever the aircraft's engine is running. Cast or crew should not be allowed in the aircraft when the engine is running unless the pilot is in control. 10. Aircraft engines should not be started or the aircraft taxied in areas where people are present, unless safety measures have been taken to eliminate any hazard to the people in the area. These measures include protecting cast, crew and equipment from flying debris caused by the taxiing or taking off of airplanes, and from the propellers when filming in front of the propellers. In the latter case, the airplane should be anchored against forward motion. 11. If the safety of aerial scenes involving low passes over the camera is questioned, a briefing between the pilot (and aviation consultant) and concerned individuals should be held to decide whether to use a locked-off camera. 12. If the airplane door is removed for the camera operators to shoot from, they should wear seat belts and have safety harnesses. The cameras should be secured separately from operators. 13. Cameras and equipment shall be located safely with the approval of the pilot when filming landings, takeoffs and taxiing of airplanes. Each end of the operational runway or landing area should be cleared while landing or taking off. 14. The aircraft should never be pointed in the direction of the camera crew or performers during acrobatic maneuvers. 15. Because of the risk of damage to the aircraft, never place objects on, or sit on or in the aircraft without the pilots permission. Similarly do not push or otherwise handle the aircraft without permission. If foreign objects fall into or on the aircraft, notify the pilot or aviation consultant. 16. In combined vehicle/airplane stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to the vehicle stunt drivers and stunt pilot. 17. In airplane stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the pilot must have the authority to abort if he or she feels the stunt is hazardous to the aircraft or any personnel. VEHICLE ACTION SEQUENCES Stunt-related vehicle accidents are a major problem in filming. Of 21 fatalities related to stunts or special effects since 1980 in film production, three camera operators and two stunt performers have been killed in vehicle accidents. A SAG study of injuries from 1982-1984 showed 10% of injuries were in automobile accidents, and 5% in motorcycle accidents. Who is the Driver A major concern is who should drive a car or other vehicle in a scene. If the scene involves risks beyond normal driving, then specially trained drivers are needed. Even for normal driving, the degree of driving skill of an actor/driver must be ascertained by an expert. The degree of risk in a vehicle action sequence depends on a variety of conditions, including speed, driving activities, other activities going on inside the vehicle at the same time, type of terrain, involvement of other vehicles, any special effects or specific stunts (e.g. fire, explosions, vehicle to vehicle transfers, etc.), and camera location. If the scene involves several cars, then a stunt coordinator is necessary to oversee the filming of the scene, even if only ordinary driving is involved. If hazardous activities are involved, such as car chase scenes where cars are weaving in and out of traffic, then all cars in the scene should be driven by stunt drivers because even good drivers might not react properly in such a scene. All passengers should also be stunt performers. For many types of hazardous driving activities, the use of insert camera cars is recommended. Insert camera cars were discussed in the Cameras section of Chapter 5. A major question has revolved around the issue of precision drivers versus stunt drivers. In many instances, especially when filming one of the multitudinous car commercials, the economic question of paying residuals to stunt drivers has overridden the safety issue of whether a stunt driver is necessary. Precision drivers should be restricted to scenes involving simple high speed driving, formation driving, or similar driving situations which do not involve special effects or hazards to other personnel. General Recommendations The following are some basic recommendations for vehicle action sequences. Each specific type of vehicle action sequence, however, needs specific procedures developed for that scene. 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use vehicle action sequences. This should also be listed on the call sheet. A description such as follows can be used, if applicable: "A vehicle is being used and will be driven in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or 1st A.D. prior to any filming." 2. All passengers in scenes involving vehicle action sequences (and drivers in ordinary driving scenes) should receive special training from a stunt coordinator in emergency procedures in the event something goes wrong. 3. All automotive vehicles used should be equipped with seat belts and harnesses, and airbags when possible. If seat belts are not possible with certain types of vehicles, for example vintage cars, then alternative safety measures should be taken. 4. Vehicles involved in side swipes, T-bones, head-ons, all roll-overs and jumps, and other collisions should be equipped with 4, 5 or 6-point harnesses for both drivers and passengers. In certain collisions, padding of drivers, and wearing of surgical collars and crash helmets would also be recommended. Other types of protection include roll bars, removal of hazardous car fixtures, and removal of excess oil and gasoline. 5. Where possible, no one should be in the vehicle during crashes or explosions. For example, Vic Magnotta's death while filming "Skip Tracer" in 1987 in Hoboken would have been prevented if he had not actually been in the car when it went into the Hudson River. Former Chief Venditto of the NYC Fire Department had refused to allow the producer to do the stunt in New York City because of the risks. (See also the section on water stunts.) 6. Only qualified stunt performers shall be on the towbar or exterior of towed vehicles. This does not include any specifically designed, towed camera platform. 7. Automobiles and other vehicles involving internal combustion engines shall only be operated inside buildings or enclosed structures if adequate ventilation to the outside for exhaust gases is provided. This ventilation should be sufficient to keep carbon monoxide levels below the OSHA standard of 35 parts per million. Carbon monoxide monitors should be used to monitor the carbon monoxide level. 8. Precautions should be taken to avoid the risks of cars crashing into cameras and their operators. Moving vehicles should not be driven directly towards the camera if the operator is behind the camera. Use remotely controlled cameras only. 9. In combined vehicle/helicopter stunts, the ground will only be wet down if acceptable to both the vehicle stunt drivers and the pilot. 10. In vehicle stunts also involving explosions, fire, and other types of stunts, the driver must have the authority and ability to abort if he or she feels the stunt is too hazardous. In fire and explosion stunts in particular, there must be excellent communication between the vehicle driver, any other stunt performer and the special effects operators as to the nature and hazard of the type of fire or explosion effect. Motorcycles As mentioned previously, motorcycle scenes provide even more of a risk due to the lack of protection on motorcycles. Even simple motorcycle scenes can be dangerous, as shown by the accident which resulted in the death of Dar Robinson in 1986 - a simple ride past the cameras in which his motorcycle went out of control. In addition to the general precautions above, the following are specific recommendations for motorcycle stunts. 1. The motorcycle operator should have a current, valid motorcycle operator's license, and have experience with the type of terrain and driving conditions involved. If unusual conditions are involved, then experienced stunt performers should be used. 2. Only essential personnel should be on the set. 3. Protective clothing and equipment such as crash helmets, gloves and surgical collars should be mandatory, except when the scene requires closeups. In that case protective clothing should be worn under the costume. 4. Motorcycles, ramps and other equipment should be examined by the stunt coordinator before use. 5. All picture motorcycles shall be equipped with a grounded, cut-off switch (deadman switch). When a stunt is to be performed, this switch shall be attached to the handlebars in such a manner that the engine shuts off when the rider separates from the motorcycle. 7. Picture motorcycles are not to be used for transportation. Only designated operators and riders shall be permitted to operate or ride the motorcycle. FIRE AND EXPLOSION STUNTS Precautions for fire and explosions were discussed in detail in the previous chapter in the sections on Pyrotechnics and Fire. In this section, I will discuss personal risk to the stunt performers involved and the combination of several types of stunts. 1. As discussed previously, all personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use fire and explosion stunts. There should be a discussion of the type of fire or explosion effect, the hazards and precautions being taken, a dry run-through with all personnel, including emergency escape routes. More details on general procedures are found in Chapter 6. The intention to use these effects should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. The special effects coordinator and stunt coordinator should be consulted on all aspects of necessary fire prevention, medical and safety precautions. 3. All costumes of actors in the vicinity of a flame should be adequately fireproofed, or of high wool or cotton content. Synthetics are not advised due to the melting properties of many synthetics when burning. 4. For stunt performers who could be exposed to flames directly, for example escaping from a burning car, more protection is needed. The water-soluble protective barrier gel called Zel Jel is a recent innovation for protecting the stunt performer's skin, clothing and hair. Gary Zeller received an Oscar in 1989 for developing Zel Jel. Gary Zeller's book, The Art of Fire, discusses fire stunts in much more detail, and Gary Zeller and Stephen Wolf have produced a videotape outlining safe procedures for performing body "burns". A "partial burn" is defined as one in which the amount of fire is limited to a restricted part of the body (e.g. an arm, leg or part of torso), and does not inhibit the sight or breathing of the stunt performer. A "full burn" is one in which a substantial portion of the body is on fire or when the flames reach or interact with head area and could limit sight or breathing. Breathing apparatus or eye protection would be needed for these. 5. There should be at least two (three, according to some stunt coordinators) trained safety people on hand for "partial burns", and at least three (five, according to some stunt coordinators) trained safety people for "full burns". Each person should be equipped with carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. 6. Other types of protective clothing for fire stunts include fireproof "long johns" or complete fireproof suits under costumes, fireproof face masks, flame resistant gloves, boots, use of hidden oxygen tanks, etc. 7. Simulating being thrown through the air as a result of an explosion is another type of stunt. This is often done with a trampoline, the size of the trampoline depending on the height to which the stunt performer would be thrown. For small trampolines, sand pits are usually used for landing; for larger ones, crash pads. Another common method involves use of ratchets, a type of catapult system. These can be very hazardous due to the high initial acceleration which jerks the stunt performer who is attached to a harness, and the high velocity achieved. One stunt performer was killed doing this, and others have been injured. Careful rigging and targeting of the landing area is essential. 8. There have been several accidents involving body squibs, and they are now considered a stunt in Ontario. Children are not permitted to be squibbed. FIGHT SCENES Fight scenes can involve anything from fistfights or other methods of unarmed combat to the use of knives, swords, firearms, etc. The use of firearms and special effects weapons was discussed in the last chapter. This section will deal with the actual fight itself, or stage combat as it is commonly called. The problem is to make the fight look real but not injure anyone. In essence, stage combat is a sophisticated dance that can involve fists, feet, or weapons. In order to make sure this is done safely, an expert has to stage (i.e. choreograph) the fight, and the actors have to be properly trained and rehearsed. An important decision is whether or not to use stunt doubles. This is determined by what is involved. If the fight is a simple throwing of punches, wrestling on the floor, or a simple duel, then actors can usually be trained for this (if willing). However if the fight involves crashing through windows, falling down stairs, or similar hazardous activities, then a stunt double should be used for that scene or that part of the scene. One group that trains actors for stage combat is the Society of Fight Directors (SAFD). This training can involve learning proficiency in a variety of weapons. An actor can become a Certified Actor/Combatant through a 100-hour program. In addition the SAFD trains and tests individuals as Certified Teachers, who can teach stage combat. Certified Fight Masters are trained to choreograph stage fights. In addition, many stunt coordinators are experienced in staging fights. The following are recommendations for stage combat: 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a stage fight. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. All fights should be choreographed by a fight director who can be an experienced stunt coordinator or certified fight master. The fight director stages and rehearses the fight. This individual or other qualified person should actually supervise the fight and should not be a participant. 3. Only adequately trained actors should participate in a stage fight. They should have experience with any weapons used. They should have adequate rehearsal time for the planned fight. 4. In the actual fight, the first rule is that a weapon, fist or kick should never be aimed directly at an actor, so that a misjudgment in distance or timing does not cause an injury. Instead, aim to the side and use camera angles to make the fight look real. 5. Actors in a fight should wear appropriate protective clothing or equipment to prevent injury in case of an accident. 6. The actors involved, fight director, director, or other safety personnel must be able to abort a fight if there is any unresolved safety concern. 7. No horseplay with weapons should be allowed. FALLS Falls can involve anything from falling down several stairs, falling off a horse, or a high fall off a building or cliff. (Falling off horses will be discussed in the next section on Horses.) All falls should be done by experienced stunt performers. Even short falls of a few feet require experience in knowing how to fall and land safely. Often falls can be simulated through use of dummies, camera angles and misleading juxtaposition of scenes. For example, falling down a flight of stairs can be filmed a few stairs at a time so that the stunt performer is never out of control. Falling off a tall building might actually involve only jumping a few feet onto a net or hidden ledge and using a dummy for the rest of the fall. High Falls High falls - any fall from a height requiring a specialized fall/arrest system for safe deceleration of the stunt performer - are among the most dangerous stunts. Falling off a cliff during a scene for the film "Sword and the Sorcerer", for example, killed stuntman Jack Tyre in 1981 when he missed the airbag. In the last ten years, two other stunt performers have been killed in falls. This type of stunt should be simulated with a dummy whenever possible. Decades ago, nets and mattresses were used at the end of the fall. In the mid 1960's, crash pads consisting of canvas filled with foam rubber and covered with tarpaulins provided more safety. Today, airbags, decelerators, and other modern equipment are generally used for high falls. Older methods are still used safely for lower falls. 1. The director and/or production manager will consult with the stunt coordinator to determine if a stunt performer is needed for a high fall instead of a dummy. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a high fall. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. An experienced high fall stunt coordinator should be chosen. The high fall coordinator, in cooperation with the director and production manager will determine the type of safety equipment to be used (e.g. boxes, air bag, descender, decelerator). The high fall coordinator shall not be the performer doing the fall, unless someone else is coordinating during the actual fall. 4. There should be at least two safety spotters for falls over 15 feet. 5. Boxes should not be used for falls over 40 feet, and air bags for falls over 120 feet. Falls over 120 feet require fall arrest systems such as descenders or decelerators to control the rate of fall. 6. The stunt coordinator shall have final say over placement of objects around the landing area for falls, and whether conditions such as wind, rain, etc. are acceptable for the fall. 7. All equipment such as air bags, associated generators, decelerators, etc. shall be tested, and inspected immediately before use. ANIMALS Scenes involving animals are potentially very hazardous. Animals can be unpredictable. Some animals, for example large cats, can attack people if startled. Other animals, for example horses, can be dangerous just because of their size. Dangerous, untrained animals should not be used on motion picture sets. In addition to risks to the actors and crew, the health and safety of the animal should be a prime consideration. General Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to use animals in a scene. This notice should include the species of animal involved since many individuals can have severe, even life-threatening, allergic reactions to particular animals. The set should be closed so that only essential personnel are present during scenes involving animals since animals are often intimidated by large numbers of strangers and noise. The closing of the set should also be listed on the call sheet and a "Closed Set" notice posted on all stages where animals are present. 2. The producer should notify the American Humane Association, American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (or other bona fide national organization incorporated for the protection of animals) of the intention to use animals in a scene, make the script available, and allow representatives of the organization to be present during filming. 3. Only trainers and/or handlers, and the designated actors, should be allowed to work with the animals. There should be enough handlers to keep the animals under safe control (e.g. two handlers per large, undomesticated animal (for example, a mountain lion). 4. The trainer providing the animals shall ensure that all required inoculations, medical certificates, licenses, and medical safeguards are obtained. Note that for wild animals, there often are no inoculations available. 5. An easily accessible area shall be available for the loading and unloading of animals. 6. On the set, animals should be provided with adequate space, rest, air, light, water, exercise opportunity, etc. Bright lights and heat should be avoided, and signs of distress and overheating - such as panting, drooling, and rapid breathing - should dictate rest and a cool down period. The animals should not be kept in cramped traveling cages. All regulations of the Federal Animal Welfare Act and any applicable state regulations should be followed. Animals should not be beaten or intimidated to obtain desired responses. 7. Animals, even untrained animals, should never be included in scenes that can injure them. Deliberate killing of animals, use of animals as bait for cats or other carnivores, running over animals, etc. should not be permitted. The opinion of the representative of the animal protection organization as to the safety of a scene (from the point of view of the animal) should be accepted. 8. Basic animal safety equipment should be available. This can include fire extinguishers, fire hose, nets, and tranquilizing equipment. For emergencies with dangerous animals, (e.g. an animal attacking a person), special tranquilizing guns should be used, not firearms. It is essential to obtain the right tranquilizer and dose for the particular animal, in order to obtain a rapid knockout. Veterinarians often are the only people who can legally obtain these tranquilizers. All equipment should be checked to ensure it is in operating condition. If the scene is complicated or potentially dangerous, a qualified veterinarian should be present. 9. Sedation or tranquilization of animals should only be done for the benefit of the animal, and upon advice of the trainer and a qualified veterinarian (except in an emergency). Animals shall not be sedated or tranquilized to calm them for a scene since this can make them unpredictable. Reptiles should never be sedated. 10. Scenery and props should be secured so they can't tip over or startle the animals. 11. A stunt coordinator having experience with animals shall be responsible for coordinating the stunt involving the animal. The stunt coordinator and animal trainer shall be given the opportunity to discuss safety precautions with the performers and crew (including the parents and/or guardian of any children) before the animals are on the set. These precautions include: * maintaining a safe distance from wild and exotic animals * no personal pets on the set while other animals are present * no feeding of animals * no running or loud noises * setting of escape routes * no alcohol or perfume near animals if the trainer thinks it would upset the animals * no menstruating women on the set if the trainer decides it might upset the animals (especially large cats or bears) 12. Animals, their handlers, the stunt coordinator, and involved performers should be given sufficient time to familiarize themselves with the set and each other. 13. Live ammunition shall not be allowed on the set, only blank ammunition. The level of blank loads and explosives shall be determined by the stunt coordinator, trainer and firearms expert. The animal handlers shall be given advance notice of gunshots or other noises, light flashes, or any other activity which could upset an animal. Every effort should be made to exclude animals from the set during gunshots, explosions, etc. Horses Scenes involving horses are a standard part of many types of films, especially the perennial American Western. Riding horses, however, is a major cause of accidents in motion picture production. These accidents can result from accidentally falling off the horse, a falling stunt that goes wrong, or injuries to people around the horses. The following recom- mendations are in addition to the general ones for animals discussed above. 1. There should be one horse handler or wrangler for every three action horses. 2. It is crucial that the horse chosen for the scene is trained for the type of activity that will occur. Ordinary riding stable horses may be suitable for scenes involving simple riding on level ground. 3. For galloping, crowd scenes, or other unusual activities, you need specially trained horses. For crowd scenes (e.g. mounted police in a riot scene), horses trained to be around moving people should be used. Actual trained police horses are commonly used. Use of untrained horses has resulted in injuries to crowd extras in such scenes, just from being hit by a moving horse. 4. If activities such as having the horse deliberately fall are involved, only trained stunt horses should be used. Horses must neither be deliberately tripped, nor should pitfalls be used to accomplish falls. 5. Even normal riding can be hazardous under certain conditions. Riding horses quickly over broken terrain, for example, is very risky since they can stumble in holes or even break a leg, and result in a thrown, injured, or killed rider. The riding route should be carefully scouted, and safe routes chosen. 6. Horses shall be properly shod for the terrain being used for the scene (e.g. street, dirt, etc.). 7. Hitching rails shall be securely fastened so the horses cannot pull them loose (e.g. sleeve installation). On a stage, the hitch rail should be bolted or rigidly fastened. 8. If the scene involves an ordinary horse ride with no unusual features - e.g. no galloping in unusual terrain, no falls, no trick riding, no unusual sounds or lighting effects - then stunt doubles are not needed. The riding actor, however, should be an experienced horse rider, and be familiar with the type of saddle being used. If the scene calls for galloping, the actor must have galloping experience. 9. For horse stunts involving unusual features, experienced stunt riders are needed. Stunts involving falling off horses or dragging behind a horse are potentially very hazardous since you do not just worry about the fall but about being injured by the horse. Quick release stirrups, special harnesses and fake camera shots are some of the ways this can be accomplished. Even when such precautions are taken, things can go wrong. In 1977, Jim Shepard was killed during the filming of "Comes a Horseman", when he got tangled in the ropes in a scene where he is shot off a horse and dragged. 10. All personnel in the vicinity of horses have to be careful. Remember a horse can weigh as much as a ton or more. They can be very unpredictable, jumping at sharp noises, the sudden appearance of a rabbit, or a person quickly moving. Horses can also bite and kick people when upset. The temperament of the horse should be an obvious factor in selec- tion, but even good-natured horses can react negatively if startled. Another concern around horses is to be careful not to get stepped on, as even experienced horse handlers have found. Venomous Reptiles Venomous reptiles such as rattlesnakes and other more exotic varieties need special precautions to prevent or treat bites. A good special effects house can make pneumatic snakes and reptiles as an alternative to live ones. The following are precautions required if live venomous snakes or reptiles are used. 1. The snake should be milked the same day to remove most of the venom. 2. The proper antidote (anti-venom) for the particular reptile on the set shall be available. The location of the anti-venom shall be printed on the call sheet. 3. If a live, poisonous reptile is to be used near people, where there is a chance of being bitten, medical personnel qualified to administer injections and trained in the use of anti-venoms shall be present. 4. Only essential personnel shall be allowed within 50 feet of the reptile. 5. Proper protective equipment shall be provided for all personnel working close to the reptile. This can include barriers, gloves, adequate leg guards, etc. 6. Carbon dioxide (CO2) bottles must be on hand. 7. The snake handler shall have a snake pincer. WATER STUNTS AND UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY Chapter 5 has a discussion of the general hazards of filming around and on water. Many special effects and stunts discussed in this and the previous chapter are inherently more dangerous on or in water because of the additional risk of drowning. However, there are some unique types of water stunts that need separate discussion. General Recommendations 1. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to do a water stunt. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 2. All water stunts should be carried out by experienced stunt performers. If other performers are involved in the scene, they must be trained in the appropriate boat and water safety. 3. For speedboat stunts, or similar stunts involving several boats, see the section on Vehicle Action Sequences. Many of the recommendations there are also applicable to this type of stunt. Stunt performers should have experience with the type of boats involved in the stunt. 4. Sea battles and other stunts involving fire and explosion special effects must be coordinated with the special effects coordinator. (See Chapter 7) 5. A qualified sailing master should coordinate sailing activities involving several vessels. This individual should not participate in the film as a performer. 6. Emergency teams, including certified safety divers should be on hand for all water stunts. Underwater Activities All underwater activities should be classified as hazardous stunts. The following recommendations specifically refer to the use of SCUBA equipment using compressed air underwater. Certified Divers are divers holding current and valid certification cards issued by a nationally or internationally recognized certification organization. SCUBA Instructors are certified annually, carry appropriate insurance, and must maintain continuing education. In addition to the general recommendations above, the following are specific recommendations for underwater activities: 1. Oxygen, and personnel trained in its use, shall be on any set where SCUBA or other underwater activities are planned. 2. Whether scuba divers and equipment are necessary for a particular scene shall be determined by the safety officer in consultation with the stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator or production manager (in case of underwater photography). 3. If SCUBA equipment will be used, a SCUBA diver coordinator shall be named. The SCUBA coordinator should be an instructor or Divemaster, and have an endorsement or certificate greater than the diver(s). 4. Any person using SCUBA equipment while filming or being filmed shall be a Certified Diver. A SCUBA instructor can certify performers or camera operators with a few lessons. For safety reasons, the performer or camera operator shall be under the supervision of a currently Certified SCUBA Instructor, and shall have sufficient instruction and training for the proposed activity. The appropriate depth for safe filming shall be determined by the Certified Instructor supervising the safety of the performers. Performers who are not certified divers shall not be required to work in depths greater than 10 feet. 5. The number of certified safety divers required should be based on the following: * There should never be only one diver. * Two divers are required when the diver's duties are similar to those of a lifeguard, e.g. surface work, rescue boat, rescue close to shore. * Three divers are required for most underwater work or rescue, where underwater usually means below six feet. One diver always remains on the surface as a dive coordinator, and records time-in and time-out of the water. * Five divers are required for ice dives, larger work projects, or harbor surveys. These divers would be divided into two dive teams and one on-surface coordinator. * Five or more divers are required for larger work or rescue projects. 6. All safety divers shall be equipped with an "octopus" type spare regulator, and an alternative air source. 7. Any person performing a stunt where he or she could be trapped underwater shall have standby breathing equipment immediately available. 8. For dives below 30 feet, emergency procedures for decompression must be established. Emergency transportation should be arranged in advance, in case of a diving accident. If a diving accident occurs, the Diver Alert Network (DAN) should be contacted to determine the nearest available recom- pression chamber. This call should not be made in advance because chamber availability is constantly changing. DAN's emergency number is (919) 684-8111, and their non-emergency number (919) 684-2948. (See also Chapter 9) This information shall be added to the call sheet and all involved persons notified. 9. An emergency recall system shall be available and operational. 10. SCUBA tanks in transport should be properly secured to prevent them from rolling around or endangering the valve. When not in use, SCUBA tanks are to be stored in the shade. 11. Occupied vehicles being submerged during a stunt must be driven by a certified diver and carry extra breathing apparatus. In addition, an escape hatch must be built into the vehicle. Once a vehicle is submerged, the air becomes compressed under water pressure. The driver must exhale on the way up to avoid lung overexpansion. 12. In any stunt where a manned vehicle is jumping more than 10 feet from the shore, a safety pickup boat must be in the water with at least three safety divers. 13. Do not use SCUBA tanks for resuscitation since they do not contain pure oxygen. See Chapter 9 for emergency medical care procedures. SKYDIVING Skydiving or parachuting is a hazardous undertaking. In 1983, Joseph Leonard Szec was killed performing a skydive during the filming of "The Right Stuff". The following are recommendations for skydiving. The term "certified parachutist" means a parachutist holding a current and valid certification card issued by a nationally or internationally recognized certification organization (e.g. United States Parachute Association or Canadian Sports Parachute Association). 1. Whether skydiving is necessary for a particular scene should be determined by consultation between the stunt coordinator, special effects coordinator, production manager and camera operator. 2. All personnel (camera crew, actors, etc.) should be informed in advance of the intention to conduct a sky dive. This should also be listed on the call sheet. 3. The certification organization should be contacted to determine the type of endorsement of certification needed by the parachutist for the jump. At a minimum, the parachutist should have a Professional Exhibition Rating from the U.S. Parachute Association or equivalent. 4. A skydive coordinator with a certification or endorsement greater than the jumper should be chosen. This could be the stunt coordinator, if so qualified. The skydive coordinator is responsible for the safety of the jump, and determines whether the location, weather (wind velocity, cloud ceiling height, visibility, etc.), communications and security are adequate. He or she has final authority over timing, and whether or not to cancel the jump. 5. Before each jump, all persons involved shall be thoroughly briefed and there should be a dry run on the ground at the site. 6. All jumps shall be in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations Part 105. The pilot of the plane shall be endorsed for skydiving and familiar with this type of filming operation. The pilot shall have the authority to cancel the jump. See also the section on Aircraft for safety with aircraft and radio communications procedures. 7. All equipment, props, wardrobe, etc. shall be checked by the skydive coordinator prior to the jump. The coordinator shall have final approval over the use of all equipment and wardrobe. 8. The FAA requires that all reserve parachutes be packed by an appropriately rated parachute rigger. 9. The landing site should be cleared of all non-essential personnel and appropriate security provided. Potentially hazardous landing sites should be eliminated, if possible. Special precautions are needed for intended water landings, or for mislandings that could end in the water. There should be a pickup boat and flotation gear for each parachutist. (See also Water Stunts). Precautions should also be developed for landing near or into other hazardous areas if moving the site is not possible. 10. Lighting for night landings should be carefully reviewed with the parachute coordinator. The landing site should be evaluated during daylight hours. REFERENCES Federal Aviation Administration. (1988). Federal Aviation Regulations 14 CFR 91.79. Minimum safe altitudes. Government Printing Office, Washington. Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the Motion Picture and Television Industry. (1986). Safety Bulletins. Hollywood. Ontario Film and Television Industry Section 11 Advisory Committee. (1990). Safety Guidelines for the Film and Television Industry in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Labor, Toronto. Zeller, G. (1984). The Art of Fire. Zeller International, Downsville. CHAPTER 9. MEDICAL SERVICES The types of medical services needed for a film production vary depending on the locale, available local medical resources, and the types of medical risks. TYPES OF MEDICAL CARE There are two basic types of medical care of concern in film production: non-emergency medical care, and emergency medical services. First aid is not medical care, but is emergency supportive treatment. Non-Emergency Medical Care On any film production involving large numbers of people, there will be a variety of non-emergency medical problems such as cuts, bruises, allergic reactions, minor illnesses, etc. which are amenable to normal medical care. These types of medical problems can be treated by Family Practice Physicians who are trained in basic medical care, or by primary care physicians specializing in such areas as internal medicine or surgery. Preferably, they should have passed a series of examinations to become board-certified in their respective specialties. Further information on the training of Family Practice Physicians can be obtained from the American College of Family Practitioners (see Resources). Emergency Medical Care Medical emergencies are also a potential problem on any film shoot. These emergencies can range from minor problems like sprained ankles up to major problems like heart attacks, severe injuries, or even disasters. If there are hazardous stunts or special effects planned for the film, the risk of a major medical emergency is higher. Medical emergencies should be treated by Emergency Physicians who are specifically trained to handle these types of medical problems. To specialize in Emergency Medicine, a physician should undergo residency training in emergency medicine, and must pass a series of examinations to become Board Certified in Emergency Medi- cine. Most emergency departments of hospitals have Emergency Physicians on staff. First Aid The purpose of first aid is to administer emergency supportive treatment before the injured person can get to a physician. First aid is not medical treatment. It is intended to keep the person alive until they can get definitive medical treatment. First aid can also be used to attend to minor cuts, bruises, etc. where medical treatment is not necessary. In the United States, there are a variety of state-certified levels of expertise for first aid practitioners. The lowest level is certified first responder with 40 hours of training. In increasing order of training are basic EMT (Emergency Medical Technician), EMT intermediate, EMT critical care technician, and EMT paramedic. EMT intermediate and higher levels must work under a physician's supervision. This can be by radio or telephone, and most hospital emergency departments maintain facilities for such supervision. EMT basic and certified first responder can immobilize a patient for transportation, bandage wounds, do CPR and similar classic first aid measures. They cannot give oxygen or medication, give intrave- nous solutions, read electrocardiograms, use a defibrillator, or use most other resuscitation equipment. Nurses, although often used on motion picture sets, must work under a physician's direct supervision in order to do more than carry out basic first aid. Unless they have had special training in advanced first aid, nurses do not have the training or expertise of advanced EMTs. NEEDS ASSESSMENT The first step in planning medical care for a film shoot is to undertake a needs assessment to identify potential medical risks. This assessment and subsequent planning and implementation steps should be carried out by, or with the assistance of, an Emergency Physician. Non-medical personnel are just not qualified to make the necessary evaluations and decisions. In the United States or Canada, the production company should contact the American College of Emergency Physicians for information on local emergency medical services, and help in making an evaluation. The Chairman of the nearest Department of Emergency Medicine in a university hospital should be contacted to provide information on local standards of care, emergency services, and as a referral source for other medical specialties that are available in the community. In other countries, particularly underdeveloped countries, the level of emergency and even non-emergency medical care might be well below American standards. In such cases, medical service companies specializing in providing emergency and non-emergency medical services for motion picture production around the world can be of invaluable assistance. Information on medical care in other counties can be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia, the State Department in Washington, D.C., and the World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland. (See Appendix 4 at the end of the book.) An adequate needs assessment involves looking at a number of crucial factors, as discussed below. Script The script should be reviewed to determine possible high risk situations, such as hazardous stunts, underwater activities, and other action sequences. Once these risks are identified, steps can be taken to determine safe procedures. This was discussed in Chapter 6. Location Once the filming locations are chosen, then there has to be an evaluation of the planned locations to determine potential medical hazards. Hazards related to the filming on location could include possible safety hazards, asbestos exposure, etc. in old, abandoned buildings; accidents in mountainous areas; heat-related diseases in deserts; frostbite in cold weather conditions; drowning in rivers; and a wide variety of other hazards. (See Chapter 3) When filming on location, there is also concern about unusual local health hazards. For example, in foreign countries, there would be concern about vaccination requirements, possible current epidemics or other local endemic diseases (such as dysentery, typhoid, etc.). In addition, there would have to be an evaluation of the quality of locally available medical care and medications, and an analysis of local hospitals, clinics and emergency transportation services. If the film or television production is shot in a major urban city like New York City - either on stage or on location - then the level of local medical care should meet modern standards of medical practice. The needs assessment would then primarily involve determining what accredited hospitals and clinics and emergency transportation systems are available. This would include the location of the closest Level 1 trauma hospitals in case of major accidents, or burn centers in case of severe burns. If the local facilities do not meet modern American medical standards, then more extensive on-site medical care would be needed, as will be discussed later. In addition, the location of the nearest source of quality medical care would have to be determined. Personnel The number of people working on the stage or location - including actors, camera crew, preproduction crew, grips, etc. - and the anticipated filming time also can affect the potential for medical problems and level of needed medical facilities and care. The use of any high risk actors, such as children, the elderly, disabled, etc. should be identified so special precautions can be developed as needed. PRE-PLANNING PHASE After the initial needs assessment is done, then a detailed analysis of major hazards and risks is necessary, followed by the design and implementation of a comprehensive plan of action. Emergency Planning An essential step is the development of a plan for emergencies, which can range from individual problems, such as heart attacks, to disasters affecting many people, such as a stunt car driving into a crowd or a building collapse. This should involve meeting with local police and fire departments and other relevant authorities concerning required permits and the coordination of emergency procedures. This is especially important in connection with stunts and special effects involving fires and explosions. Meetings should be arranged with local hospital and emergency transportation authorities to arrange and coordinate speedy medical care in case of emergencies. Steps should be taken to eliminate lengthy waiting periods in hospital emergency rooms through expedited arrangements well in advance of filming. Also particular emergencies might mean transporting injured or ill individuals to different hospitals. For example, different hospitals might have intensive care units for heart attacks, trauma centers, and burn centers. If these are not available locally, then arrangements should be made in advance for emergency transportation and treatment at appropriate hospitals in other locations. If local emergency transportation systems are not adequate or speedy enough, then private arrangements will have to be made. Non-Emergency Medical Care As discussed earlier, there will be a variety of non-emergency medical problems on a film set which are amenable to normal medical care. Arrangements should be made with local hospital authorities and perhaps private physicians to provide this medical care. These arrangements should include what types of care will be provided, at what cost, and how it will be paid. If such care is not available within a short distance (e.g. in the country), then on-site medical care might be arranged. Besides providing prompt treatment, this has the advantage in many instances of decreasing costly lost time. Foreign Locations When filming in other countries, a number of other potential medical problems and risks can arise. Vaccinations, immunizations, health screening and certificates of health might have to be arranged and provided. Local medications might not be in the same dosages as in the United States and the quality might not meet current American standards. Water sources might have to be tested and perhaps arrangements made for providing safe water. The level of medical care in the foreign country might not meet the American standard of care, possibly requiring a more complete on-site medical presence than would otherwise be necessary. ON-SITE MEDICAL CARE The level of on-site medical care that is needed depends on the risks and the availability of adequate emergency and other medical treatment. Availability of Emergency Medical Care In cases of severe injuries, the time taken to receive qualified trauma care is critical. Most emergency medical service experts believe that emergency or trauma care should be available within 10 minutes. If proper medical care can be reached within this time, then first aid facilities may be all that is needed on-site for all but the most hazardous situations. This would be true, for example, in most urban settings in the United States. If reaching medical care would be delayed, then a board-certified Emergency Physician would be needed on-site. Guidelines for Medical Care on Location As mentioned, the level of on-site emergency medical care needed depends on the degree of risk and the availability of emergency medical treatment. If the risk of injury is high, for example, in a stunt involving exploding cars, and if it would take more than 10 minutes to reach a Level 1 trauma hospital, then properly qualified Emergency Physicians, and supporting equipment and personnel, should be on location in order to be able to provide crucial emergency medical treatment. If the risk is high, but proper emergency medical facilities can be quickly reached, then currently certified paramedics on-site would be acceptable. Even when there are not specific high risk situations, accidents and severe illnesses such as heart attacks requiring quick medical attention can occur. If emergency medical treatment is not quickly available, such as on remote locations (especially in foreign countries), then properly qualified Emergency Physicians are recommended, just as for high risk situations. These physicians can also provide routine medical care for non-emergency situations such as minor accidents and illnesses which, although not serious, can result in costly lost time. If adequate medical treatment is readily available, then certified EMTs should suffice for possible emergencies like heart attacks. For this situation, an EMT intermediate level would be sufficient. Although not mandated by law, supervision by an Emergency Physician is recommended. The following summarizes minimum recommendations based on the type of filming situation. These recommendations are based on discussions with Emergency Physicians and other physicians familiar with the medical needs of motion picture production. 1. Sets with no stunts, special effects or other high risk situations. U.S. - within 1 hour of adequate medical care: EMT intermediate level, preferably physician supervised. Remote U.S. or other developed countries: Board Certified Emergency Physician Underdeveloped countries: Board Certified Emergency Physician, preferably trained in tropical medicine/infectious diseases. 2. Sets with hazardous stunts or other high risk situations. U.S. - within 1 hour of adequate medical care: State-certified EMT paramedics in radio communications with a supervising physician. Remote U.S. or other developed countries: Board Certified Emergency Physician. Underdeveloped countries: Board Certified Emergency Physician, preferably trained in tropical medicine/infectious diseases. Emergency Transportation It is crucial that adequate emergency transportation be available for accidents and other medical emergencies. An ordinary car, station wagon or helicopter is not adequate. The emergency vehicle should have an advanced life support unit and must be staffed by trained personnel. In stuntman Dar Robinson's fatal accident while filming a motorcycle scene in 1983, part of the reason for his death was that he was transported a great distance in a station wagon by untrained personnel who did not know how to immobilize him properly. For high risk situations, it would not be advisable to rely on local ambulance services because of the delay in their reaching the scene of the accident. There should be one on location in case of accident, even in major cities like New York. For normal situations, it should be possible to rely on local ambulance services if they meet appropriate standards. However, arrangements should be made in advance to meet possible emergencies. In remote locations, a properly equipped emergency vehicle like an evacuation helicopter should be on hand for high risk situations, if an ambulance could not reach proper medical facilities quickly enough. Emergency transportation services should be on call for normal emergencies, unless it would take too long for them to reach the location; in that case the emergency vehicle should be on hand. Most states have regulations concerning emergency transportation vehicles. In New York State, for example, both the emergency equipment on board and the mechanical safety of ambulances must be state-certified. The ambulance must also have a 10 inch side sticker stating it is NYS certified and a signed certification logo. In addition the ambulance personnel must consist of a driver plus at least one (and preferably two) state-certified EMT Basics. Evacuation helicopters should meet the similar standards. In New York State, ambulance standards are also applied to evacuation helicopters. COST OF MEDICAL CARE Besides the effect on an individual's health, accidents and illnesses can have a variety of practical and financial repercussions, including the cost of health care, possible lawsuits, increases in liability and workers' compensation insurance rates, and cost overruns due to delayed production. A properly designed on-site medical care program can save money in a variety of ways: 1. In case of a major accident or injury, the availability of trained emergency medical personnel and needed equipment can mean the difference between a fatality and a simple filming delay. 2. Proper preventive measures and on-site medical care can prevent illnesses from breaking out or minimize the loss of production time if they do occur, especially with respect to minor illnesses and injuries which can be treated on-site. Proper and prompt medical treatment can also shorten periods of more severe illnesses, again leading to decreased downtime. 3. Decreases in work-related illnesses and injuries can lead to reduced workers' compensation rates and lower overall medical costs. 4. A professional emergency medical program can lead both to decreased liability insurance rates and to overall lower liability risk. Such a program is good faith evidence that a production company is trying to provide high quality medical care. 5. A comprehensive approach to emergency medical care can also lead to reduced costs for medical goods and services. The cost of medical care on a case by case basis is usually more expensive than a properly planned medical program with many costs worked out in advance. In addition, many production companies have spent money on equipment and supplies that were not needed. REFERENCES McCann, M. (1988). Emergency Medical Care on Set and Location. Center for Safety in the Arts, New York. CHAPTER 10. LAWS AND REGULATIONS A wide variety of federal, state and local agencies administer laws and regulations on health and safety that apply to motion picture and television production. In addition, in case of accident, various parties can be subject to lawsuits if negligence is involved. This chapter will discuss the most important of these laws and relevant government agencies. OSHA Employers are required by the federal Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHAct) "to ensure as far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working conditions". The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a federal agency, has the responsibility for administering OSHAct, issuing standards on health and safety, and carrying out inspections to enforce the regulations and law. OSHA can fine employers who do not comply. Coverage of OSHAct applies to all private employers and their employees in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and all other U.S. territories. In 23 states with OSHA-approved state plans, OSHA has delegated its authority to enforce OSHAct. Once federal OSHA has adopted a regulation, these states must adopt a comparable standard within 6 months of the publication date of a final standard. These states include: Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Virgin Islands, Washington, and Wyoming. Rights and Responsibilities Under OSHAct, employers are responsible for keeping a hazard-free workplace, knowing and obeying OSHA standards, informing employees about OSHA and their rights, keeping appropriate records, informing OSHA of fatalities and 5 or more injuries requiring hospitalizations, posting citations, and abating citations. Employees are responsible for following employer health and safety rules and OSHA standards, wearing required personal protective equipment, reporting hazardous conditions and accidents to their supervisor, and cooperating with OSHA compliance officers. Employees have the right to see copies of applicable OSHA standards, to request information on hazards and precautions, to request OSHA to make an inspection if it is believed there are hazardous conditions or violations of OSHA standards, to have his or her name kept confidential when filing an OSHA complaint, to have an authorized employee representative present during inspections, to have access to monitoring and medical records, and to not be discriminated against for exercising these rights. OSHA Standards The general duty clause of OSHAct states that each employer "shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees." This general duty clause can be used by compliance officers when there is no specific OSHA standard. OSHA also promulgates and enforces specific health and safety standards. Depending on the situation, different OSHA categories of standards could apply. If large scale work is done (e.g. constructing a multistory building), then the OSHA Construction Standards (CFR 1926) would apply. Otherwise the OSHA General Industry Standards (CFR 1910) apply. OSHA standards cover such areas as emergency plans, fire safety, machine guarding, flammable and combustible liquids, spray finishing, welding, sanitation, toxic and hazardous substances, etc. Many of the hazards in motion picture production would not be covered by OSHA standards. In such instances, the general duty clause would apply. Note that CalOSHA (the California state OSHA plan) has regulations requiring that employers have a written Injury and Illness Prevention Program. This program must have the following elements: * Identification by name of persons responsible for the program; * A system for ensuring employee compliance with the program; * A system to ensure communications with employees about health and safety issues (e.g., a labor/management health and safety committee); * A system and procedures, including periodic scheduled inspections to identify health and safety hazards; * A procedure to investigate occupational illnesses and injuries; * Procedures for correcting unsafe or unhealthy conditions, work practices, and work procedures; * Safety and health training for employees and supervisors; and * Record-keeping and documentation of the program. In addition, CalOSHA considers motion picture production a high hazard industry. OSHA standards are available from local OSHA offices (see Appendix 1) Toxic and Hazardous Substance Standards Subpart Z - Toxic and Hazardous Substances of the OSHA standards lists the Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for several hundred chemicals (CFR 1910.1000). These PELs were recently revised, mostly to reflect changes in the Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) of the American Conference for Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Prior to this revision, most PELs were based on 1968 TLVs. The PELs are legal standards. TLVs are defined as "airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect." One problem with TLVs for many chemicals is that the manufacturers of those chemicals had a major say in the TLV development. As a result there is considerable controversy over the adequacy of the resulting TLVs. In addition, they do not protect sensitive workers. In order to apply the numerical TLVs (or PELs), there must be air sampling to determine the concentration in air of that chemical. In addition to the PELs, Subpart Z has specific standards for many hazardous substances, including asbestos, lead, cadmium, formaldehyde, and many other carcinogens. Hazard Communication Standard The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard applies to all employees in the United States who are exposed or potentially exposed to hazardous substances at their workplace. The purpose of the hazard communication rule is to ensure that the hazards of all chemicals produced or imported are evaluated, and that information concerning their hazards is transmitted to employers and employees by means of comprehensive, written hazard communication programs. Such hazard communication programs must include container labeling and other forms of warning, material safety data sheets and employee training. Inspections OSHA has the right to inspect any workplace without advance notice. There are several types of inspection: 1) imminent danger; 2) fatality and multiple injuries; 3) valid employee complaints; 4) special emphasis programs (targeted at high risk industries); and 5) random inspection programs. The OSHA inspector can issue citations and penalties for violation of OSHA standards. These citations usually give an abatement date for correction of the violations. The size of the penalty depends on the seriousness of the violation, which includes de minimis, nonserious, serious, and imminent danger violations. The citation and penalty (or lack of same) can be appealed by the employer, employee or union. Record-keeping and Reporting OSHA requires that all employers keep records of occupational illnesses and injuries resulting in death, one or more lost workdays, restriction of work or motion, loss of consciousness, transfer to another job, or medical treatment (other than first aid). Each such injury or illness must be recorded on OSHA No. 200 - Log and Summary of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses and on OSHA No. 101 - Supplementary Records within 6 days. By February 1 of each year, the employer must fill out and post for at least 30 days the summary part of OSHA No. 200. As of 1991, motion picture production is excluded from this reporting, except in California. If an on-the-job accident results in the death of an employee or in the hospitalization of 5 or more employees, all employers must report the accident in detail to the nearest OSHA office within 48 hours. Voluntary Compliance Program OSHA funds a voluntary compliance program, usually operated by the state departments of labor. Under this free program, a voluntary compliance officer will conduct an inspection of the workplace at the request of the employer, and make recommendations for correction of any hazards. As long as the employer is working with this program, OSHA will not make an inspection. The voluntary compliance program does not report to OSHA any violations found, except in cases of imminent hazard which could involve death or serious injury. Appendix 2 lists the voluntary compliance offices in each state. NIOSH The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) was established by OSHAct to conduct research on occupational health and safety, to provide technical assistance to OSHA, and to recommend standards for OSHA to adopt. NIOSH can make workplace investigations as part of this research. It can require that employers measure their employees' exposures and provide medical examinations of employees (at NIOSH expense). NIOSH also certifies respirators. NIOSH provides technical assistance to employers and employees. Employers or three or more employees can request a Health Hazard Evaluation if they suspect that health hazards exist in the workplace. NIOSH will come in and conduct any air monitoring and medical examinations necessary. In addition, employers can request a Technical Assistance inspection, which is a more limited version of the Health Hazard Evaluation. NIOSH also provides information to employers and employees upon request and has a wide variety of literature. See Appendix 3 for a list of NIOSH offices. WORKERS' COMPENSATION LAWS Most employees in the United States are required to be covered by state workers' compensation laws. These laws provide a variety of benefits for job-related injuries and illnesses, including benefits for medical expenses, wage replacement, loss of limbs (or their use), rehabilitation and survivor's benefits in case of death. These laws vary from state to state. Workers' compensation is a "no fault" insurance system, meaning an injured employee can collect without having to prove it was the employer's fault. In addition, the injured employee can collect benefits even if the injury was his or her fault. In return, the employer is protected from lawsuits for negligence. Thus workers' compensation is the sole remedy for injured employees with respect to their employer. (See the section on Liability for information on lawsuits against other parties besides the employer.) What Is Covered? Injuries are covered under workers' compensation if they are job-related. The usual requirements are that the injury result from an accident arising out of and in the course of employment. The actual injury does not have to occur on the job site. For example, a car accident on the road during a delivery for the employer would be covered. Accidents occurring during travel to or from a remote filming location might be covered, depending on the state. Occupational illnesses may also be covered. The extent of coverage and what illnesses are covered varies widely from state to state. In New York State, the illness does not have to be solely caused by something on the job, but the job has to substantially contribute to the illness. A classic example of a compensable occupational illness is contact dermatitis from exposure to chemicals. There are usually statutes of limitations for filing claims for occupational diseases. In New York State, a worker may file a claim for up to 2 years after becoming aware that the disease was caused by the job. Illnesses may also be covered under workers' compensation if they would only occur because of the nature of the job. For example, a heart attack that occurred while filming in the desert might be compensable if the heat was a primary factor. An injured employee has the right to file a workers' compensation claim with the state workers' compensation board if he or she thinks the injury is work-related, whether or not the employer agrees. If the employer does not think the injury or illness was work-related, then the employer can challenge the claim. Insurance Carriers There are a variety of ways to be covered under workers' compensation: private carriers, state funds, and self-insurance. State laws vary widely in the types of carriers permitted. Some states have an exclusive state fund, which is a non-profit agency that provides workers' compensation insurance for employers. Other states allow private insurance companies (e.g. Travelers, Fireman's Fund, Liberty Mutual) to provide workers compensation and have non-exclusive State Funds which must provide coverage to employers. New York State allows private carriers, and has a State Insurance Fund. Large employers often have self insurance, meaning they cover themselves for workers' compensation benefits. Of course, these plans have to meet state regulations. The premiums for workers' compensation insurance is paid entirely by the employer. The premium size depends on the company's experience rating. This depends on the number of workers' compensation claims that have been filed by the company and on the average for the industry. FIRE PREVENTION LAWS Most fire codes and building codes do not have specific sections regulating motion picture production. In most instances, standard regulations are applied. There are a number of authorities regulating fire hazards at the federal, state and local levels. OSHA As mentioned earlier in this chapter, OSHA has a number of regulations concerned with fire prevention. If a state has an approved state plan, then OSHA regulations are enforced by the state. The relevant regulations in the Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910 are: CFR 1910.38 Employee emergency plans and fire prevention plans. CFR 1910.101,102,104. Compressed Gases, Acetylene, Oxygen. CFR 1910.106 Flammable and combustible liquids CFR 1910.107. Spray finishing using flammable and combustible liquids CFR 1910.157 Portable fire extinguishers CFR 1910.158 Standpipe and hose systems CFR 1910.159-163. Fixed extinguishing systems CFR 1910.164,165. Fire detection and employee alarm systems CFR 1910.252. Welding, cutting and brazing. CFR 1910.307. Electrical-Hazardous (classified) locations State and Local Fire Regulations Most states do not have specific fire regulations, but some provide uniform guidelines for local fire departments. In California, the California State Fire Marshal has developed and published the Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. This provides excellent guidelines which can be adopted by local fire departments. These guidelines could also be applied in other states. Municipalities and counties, however, normally promulgate and enforce fire regulations. Local fire departments issue needed permits. They can inspect the site for fire and life safety hazards, including emergency escape for employees and public, operation of fire protection systems, fire department access to buildings, use of flammable liquids and gases, pyrotechnic special effects, etc. (Chapter 5 contains a fire/life safety inspection checklist of possible hazards on the location.) The fire department also can carry out periodic inspections. Local fire departments are also responsible for issuing permits for special hazards, including special effects, refuelers, tents, welding/cutting, etc. Fire departments may require standby fire personnel at all filming sites. In California, for example, reasons for requiring fire standby personnel can include presence of the public at the filming site, limited exiting, pyrotechnics special effects, use and refueling of aircraft, filming in areas of high fire risk, filming in remote areas where response time of the fire department may be too long, and tents which are occupied by 500 persons or more. The California State Fire Marshall recommends that such standby personnel should have two years' experience as a full-time firefighter, completion of a fire inspection practices course, and basic knowledge of pyrotechnics special effects laws and regulations. Insurance Policies Insurance companies will usually require that production companies meet certain minimum standards of fire protection before insuring the company. In many instances they will inspect the location before issuing a fire policy. MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS Cities, towns, counties, etc. have local laws and regulations. These can cover such areas as filming permits, traffic regulations, sanitation and other health requirements, use of firearms, air pollution, building codes, etc. Many of these regulations are enforced by the police departments or similar public safety organizations. Others may be enforced by various city agencies, including health departments, building departments, etc. A filming crew might have to interface with several agencies to get all needed permits. In many instances, cities and states have set up special film commissions to help with the various permits needed. An example is New York City's Mayor's Office of Film, Theater and Broadcasting. CIVIL LIABILITY Many lawsuits have occurred as a result of serious injuries and fatalities resulting from motion picture production. These lawsuits claim negligence on the part of one or more individuals or companies, which resulted in the injuries. Many such lawsuits have resulted in multimillion dollar awards or settlements. The awards are for conscious pain and suffering, medical expenses, lost past and future earnings, and, in some cases, for punitive damages. The increasing number of such lawsuits due to escalating numbers of injuries has resulted in drastically increased insurance premiums. Who Can Be Sued? As discussed above, if an employee is injured on the job, he or she cannot sue the employer (or other employees) - even if their negligence caused the accident, since workers' compensation is the sole remedy for employees. The injured employee, however, can sue independent contractors (individuals or companies) whose negligence was a cause of the accident. For example, in injuries involving stunts or special effects, an injured performer or camera operator might be able to sue the special effects coordinator, stunt coordinator, and director since they are usually independent contractors in motion picture production, but could not directly sue the production company (their employer). As a corollary, an independent contractor (e.g. a stunt coordinator) who is injured can sue the director and producer (or their companies). Therefore, in determining liability, an important question is who is the employer, and who is an employee or independent contractor. Whether a person is an independent contractor or employee does not depend just on how he or she is paid. The crucial test is the degree of control the individual has over the details of his or her work. For example, a director who has complete control over how the film is made, including timing, locations, choosing personnel, etc. is an independent contractor. Similarly, so is a special effects coordinator who brings his or her own equipment, who decides where and how everything is placed, and has his or her own assistant. A precedent that, for example, directors or producers who are employed on a film through a loan-out company may be independent contractors and not employers, was established in a 1986 California court decision involving director Hal Needham and his loan-out company Stuntman, Inc. Needham and Stuntman, Inc. were sued by stuntwoman Heidi Von Beltz, who was left a quadriplegic by a stuntcar crash during filming of "Cannonball Run" in 1980. The jury held that Von Beltz and Needham were not co-employees because the director had been employed on the film production through his loan-out company, and awarded her 4.5 million dollars for her injuries. The California Court of Appeals upheld this decision in 1988. Major lawsuits have been filed in many film accidents, including the 1989 deaths of 5 people from a helicopter accident during filming of the Chuck Norris film "Delta Force 2" in the Philippines, and the 1989 death of stuntman Clint Carpenter during filming of "Hired to Kill" in Corfu. Many other cases have been settled out of court. For example, the families of the two Vietnamese children killed in a helicopter scene during filming of "The Twilight Zone" in 1982 reportedly received two million dollars in an out-of-court settlement. CRIMINAL PROSECUTION Although rare in the past, criminal prosecutions of employers in workplace fatalities are increasing where it can be shown that the employer deliberately withheld knowledge of the hazards from employees, and refused to implement precautions. This increase in criminal prosecutions is also a result of court decisions that OSHAct does not override state criminal laws. The most famous criminal prosecution in the motion picture industry is the charges of involuntary manslaughter against Director John Landis and four associates, including the helicopter pilot and special effects coordinator, after the 1982 deaths of Vic Morrow and two children during the filming of "The Twilight Zone." They were charged with involuntary manslaughter, but were acquitted on the basis that it was an accident, and no one could have predicted the helicopter crash. With the advent of the Safety Bulletins developed by the Industry Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee, and campaigns for health and safety programs developed by unions and other organizations such as the Center for Safety in the Arts, future criminal prosecutions could focus around issues of what type of health and safety program was present, how did the producer evaluate the risks of a stunt, and what precautions were taken. REFERENCES California State Fire Marshall Film Advisory Committee. (1988). Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook. California State Fire Marshall, Sacramento. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For Construction, 29 CFR Part 1926. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington. APPENDIX 1. CENTER FOR SAFETY IN THE ARTS What is CSA? The Center for Safety in the Arts provides information on hazards in the visual arts, performing arts, children and school arts programs, museums, and general health and safety information and laws relevant to the arts. The information is primarily intended for artists, performers and others working in the arts, and most of the files are written for people without a health and safety background. It is also a resource for health and safety professionals who want information on hazards in the arts. From 1977 to the end of 1995, the Center for Safety in the Arts (CSA) operated the Art Hazards Information Center, a national resource center for research and education on hazards in the arts. Loss of funding required closing of the Information Center in 1996. Many of the data sheets developed by CSA, along with other relevant information, can be found in the CSA Library on the CSA web site (see below). Other CSA programs had included publishing the newsletter, Art Hazards News, and offering educational programs and consultations on hazards in the arts. CSA continues to publish Art Hazards News. The educational programs and consultations are no longer available through CSA, but are available privately. Art Hazards News CSA has published the newsletter Art Hazards News since 1978. It is presently an 8-page, quarterly newsletter edited by Angela Babin. The newsletter covers new hazards, precautions, legislative developments, lawsuits, and special events related to hazards in the arts. We encourage reprinting of articles as long as credit is given and our copyright included. If you wish to submit an article to Art Hazards News, send a message to the editor, Angela Babin at the address below. The cost of a subscription cost to Art Hazards News is $24.00 per year. (Canada and PanAm countries add US $2.50 for first class postage; other countries, add US $5.00. Only checks payable on a U.S. bank are acceptable.). Send payment to: Center for Safety in the Arts Mailbox 310 2124 Broadway New York, NY 10023. All back issues of Art Hazards News since 1993 (except the present year's issues) can be found in the Art Hazards News subdirectory on the CSA web site. CSA Web Site The URL or Internet address for the CSA Home Page is: http://artswire.org:70/1/csa/ The CSA Library includes CSA data sheets and other relevant information in ASCII format, tables of contents of books on hazards in the arts, and descriptions of videotapes, along with ordering information. There are also links to other Internet web sites concerned with health and safety. APPENDIX 3. RESOURCES Occupational Health Clinics This list was updated with help from the Association of Occupational & Environmental Clinics (AOEC). Alabama UAB Occup Medicine Services 930 20th Street South Birmingham, AL 35294 (205) 934-7303 California Irvine Occup Health Center 19722 MacArthur Boulevard Irvine, CA 92717 (714) 824-8651 Occup and Environ Health Clinic Univ of California at Davis ITEH Davis, CA 95616 (916) 752-3317 Occup and Environ Health Univ California at San Francisco 1515 Scott Street San Francisco, CA 94115 (415) 885-7770 Colorado Occup and Environ Medicine Div Immunology and Respiratory Med National Jewish Center 1400 Jackson Street Denver, CO 80206 (303) 398-1520 Connecticut Yale Occupational and Environmental Medicine Program 135 College Street, 3rd Floor New Haven, CT 06510 (203) 785-5885 University of Connecticut Occupational Medicine Prog 263 Farmington Avenue Farmington, CT 06030 (860) 679-2893 Lawrence and Memorial Occupational Health Center at Pequot Center 52 Hazelnut Hill Road Groton, CT 06340 (203) 446-8265 Waterbury Occupational Health 140 Grandview Avenue Suite 101 Waterbury, CT 06708 (203) 573-8114 District of Columbia Div Occup and Environ Medicine George Washington University 2300 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20037 (202) 994-1734 Georgia Emory Environ & Occup Program Rollins School of Public Health 1518 Clifton Road Atlanta, GA 30329 (404) 778-5978 Hawaii Occupational Medicine Straub Clinic and Hospital 839 South Beretania Honolulu, HI 96813 (808) 522-4321 Illinois Occupational Medicine Clinic Cook County Hospital 720 South Wolcott Chicago, IL 60612 (312) 633-5310 Univ IL Occup Medicine Program 914 South Wood MC 684 Chicago, IL 60612 (312) 996-7420 Iowa Occup Med Clinic Univ of Iowa Dept Internal Med SE 318, GH 200 Hawkins Drive Iowa City, IA 52242 (319) 356-8269 Kentucky Univ of KY Occup Med Program 2400 Greatstone Point Lexington, KY 40504 (606) 257-5150 Louisiana Ochsner Center for Occup Health 1514 Jefferson Highway New Orleans, LA 70121 (504) 842-3955 Maine Center for Health Promotion 1600 Congress Street Portland, ME 04102 (207) 774-7751 Maryland Johns Hopkins University Center Occup and Environ Health 5501 Hopkins Bayview Circle Baltimore, MD 21224 (410) 550-2322 Occupational Health Project University of Maryland School of Medicine 405 Redwood Street Baltimore, MD 21201 (410) 706-7464 Massachusetts Occupational and Environmental Medical Program Boston University Medical Center 88 East Newton Street Boston, MA 02118 (617) 638-8400 Center for Occupational and Environmental Medicine Mass Respiratory Hospital 2001 Washington Street South Braintree, MA 02184 (617) 848-2600 Occup and Environ Health Center Cambridge Hospital 1493 Cambridge Street Cambridge, MA 02139 (617) 498-1580 Occupational Health Service Dept Family and Community Med University of MA 55 Lake Avenue North Worcester, MA 01655 (508) 856-2734 Michigan Div Occup & Environ Medicine Wayne State - Dept Family Med 4201 St. Antoine, Suite 4J Detroit, MI 48201 (313) 577-1420 Michigan Univ, Dept of Medicine 117 West Fee East Lansing, MI 48824 (517) 353-1846 Occupational Health Program University of Michigan School of Public Health 1420 Washington Heights Ann Arbor, MI 48109 (313) 764-2594 Center for Occup & Environ Med 22255 Greenfield Rd, Suite 440 Southfield, MI 48075 (810) 559-6663 Occupational Health Service Work and Health Institute St. Lawrence Hospital 1210 West Saginaw Lansing, MI 48915 (517) 377-0309 Minnesota Occupational and Environmental Health Services Ramsey Clinic 640 Jackson Street St Paul, MN 55101 (612) 221-3771 Columbia Park Medical Group 6401 University Ave, NE, #200 Minneapolis, MN 55432 (612) 572-5710 New Jersey Environmental and Occupational Health Clinical Center - EOHSI UMDNJ Robert Wood Johnson Med Schl P.O. Box 1179 Piscataway, NJ 08855 (908) 445-0123 New Mexico Presbyterian Occup Med Clinic 5901 Harper, NE Albuquerque, NM 87109 (505) 823-8450 New York Mount Sinai-Irving J. Selikoff Center for Occupational and Environmental Medicine Box 1058 One Gustave Levy Place New York, NY 10029 (212) 987-6043 Mt. Sinai Occup Medical Clinic Hudson Valley Division Phelps Memorial Hospital 701 North Broadway North Tarrytown, NY 10591 (914) 366-3670; 3000 Mt. Sinai Occup Medical Clinic/ Brooklyn Center Long Island College Hospital (718) 780-2805 New York Univ/Bellevue Hospital Occup and Environmental Clinic 1 Ave and 27 Street Room CD349 New York, NY 10016 (212) 561-4572 Union Occupational Health Ctr 450 Grider Street Buffalo, NY 14215 (716) 894-9366 Eastern NY Occup Health Prog 155 Washington Avenue Albany, NY 12210 (518) 436-5511 Finger Lakes Occup Hlth Services 980 Westfall Road, Suite 210 Rochester, NY 14642 (716) 256-0853 Occupational and Environmental Health Science Center Level 3, Room 086 SUNY at Stony Brook 100 Nichols Road Stony Brook, NY 11794-8036 (516) 444-2167 Central NY Occupational Health Clinical Center 6712 Brooklawn Pkwy, Suite 204 Syracuse, NY 13211 (315) 432-8899 North Carolina Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Duke Medical Center, Box 2914 Durham, NC 27710 (919) 286-3232 Ohio Cleveland Clinic Foundation Section Occup Health Medicine 1 Clinic Center 9500 Euclid Avenue Cleveland, OH 44195 (216) 444-5707, (800) 223-2273 Greater Cinci Occup Hlth Center Jewish Hospital at Evandale 10475 Reading Rd, Ste 405 Cincinnati, OH 45241 (513) 769-0561 Center Occup Hlth - Holmes Hospital, Tate Wing Eden and Bethesda Avenue Cinci Univ, College of Medicine Cincinnati, OH 45267 (513) 558-1234 Occupational Health Center Univ Health Center/Landerbrook 5850 Landerbrook Dr, Suite 100 Mayfield Heights, OH 44124 (216) 646-2210 WorkLink Occup and Environ Medicine 2500 Metro-Health Drive Cleveland, OH 44109 (216) 778-8087 Oklahoma Univ Occupational Health Service Oklahoma Memorial Hospital 900 NE 10th Street, #2402 Oklahoma City, OK 73104 (405) 271-6177 WorkMed 9330 East 41 Street, #102 Tulsa, OK 74145 (918) 627-4646 Oregon Legacy Occup Medical Clinic 1650 NW Front, Suite 180 Portland, OR 97209 (503) 226-6744 Pennsylvania Center Occup & Env Health Abington Memorial Hospital 2510 Maryland Road, Suite 101 Willow Grove, PA 19090 (215) 881-5904 Occupational and Environmental Medicine Program University of Pittsburgh 130 DeSoto, Room A729 Pittsburgh, PA 15261 (412) 624-3155 Dept Community and Prev Med Occup Health Service Medical College of Pennsylvania 1505 Race Street, 6th floor Bellet Building MS 644 Philadelphia, PA 19129 (215) 842-6540 Rhode Island Memorial Hospital of RI Occupational Health Service Brown University Occup Medicine 111 Brewster Street Pawtucket, RI 02860 (401) 729-2859 Texas Texas Institute for Occupational Safety and Health U.S. Highway 271 and 155 PO Box 2003 Tyler, TX 75710 (903) 877-5900 Univ of Texas Health Services 7000 Fannin, Suite 1620 Houston, TX 77030 (713) 500-3267 Utah Rocky Mountain Center for Occup and Environmental Health Univ of Utah, Building 512 Salt Lake City, UT 84112 (801) 581-3841 Washington Occupational Medicine Program University of Washington Harborview Med Ctr 325 9th Avenue, #359739 Seattle, WA 98104 (206) 731-3005 West Virginia Div Occup and Env Health Dept Family and Community Med Marshall University Med School 1801 Sixth Avenue Huntington, WV 25755 (304) 696-7045 Inst Occup and Env Health West Virginia Univ School of Medicine PO Box 9190 HSS 3801 Morgantown, WV 26506 (304) 293-3693 Wisconsin OMCA 15465 Howard New Berlin, WI 53151 (414) 786-4422 Canadian Occupational Health Clinics Alberta University of Alberta Faculty of Medicine 13-103 Clinical Sciences Building Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G3 (403) 492-6291 Manitoba MFL Occupational Health Center 102-275 Broadway Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 4M6 (204) 949-0811 Ontario McMaster University Occupational Health Program 1200 Main Street West Room 3H50 Hamilton, Ontario L8N 3Z5 (905) 525-9140, ext 22333 Sandy Hill Community Health Centre 221 Nelson Street Ottawa, Ontario K1N 1C7 (613) 789-7752 Evans Health Services 364 Evans Avenue Toronto, Ontario M8Z 1K5 (416) 252-5885 Lakeshore Area Multi-Services Occup Health 185 5th Street Eteobicoke, Ontario M8V 2Z5 (416) 252-6471 Occup & Environ Health Clinic St. Michael's Hospital 61 Queen Street East, 8th Flr Toronto, Ontario M5C 2T2 (416) 867-7470 Quebec Direction de la Sante Publique 1075 Chemin Ste-Soy, 2nd Floor Quebec, G1S 2M1 (418) 646-3622 Regional Poison Control Centers (PCCs) Assembled by Angela Babin, MS Accredited by the American Association of Poison Control Centers, 1996. Keep updated telephone numbers in advance of emergencies. Birmingham, AL Alabama Children's Hospital PCC (205) 939-9201, (800) 292-6678 (AL only) Tuscaloosa, AL Alabama Poison Center (205) 345-0600 (800) 462-0800 (AL only) Tucson, AZ AZ Poison & Drug Info Center (602) 626-6016 (800) 362-0101 (AZ only) Phoenix, AZ Samaritan Regional Poison Ctr (602) 253-3334 Fresno, CA Central California Regional PCC (209) 445-1222 (800) 346-5922 (CA only) Sacramento, CA Univ of CA at Davis Poison Ctr (916) 734-3692 (800) 342-9293 (NE CA only) San Diego, CA San Diego Regional Poison Ctr (619) 543-6000, (800) 876-4766 Denver, CO Rocky Mountain Poison Center (303) 629-1123 Farmington, CT Ct Reg Poison Control Center (203) 679-3056 (800) 343-2722 (CT only) Washington, DC National Capital Poison Center (202) 625-3333, 362-8563 (TTY) Jacksonville, FL Florida Poison Info Center (904) 549-4480 (800) 282-3171 (FL only) Miami, FL FL Poison Information Center (800) 282-3171 (FL only) Tampa, FL Florida Poison Information Center (813) 253-4444 (800) 282-3171 (FL only) Atlanta, GA Georgia Reg Poison Control Ctr (404) 616-9000 (800) 282-5846 (GA only) Indianapolis, IN Indiana Poison Center (317) 929-2323 (800) 382-9097 (IN only) Louisville, KY KY PCC/Kosair Children's Hosp (502) 629-7275, (800) 722-5725 (KY only) Monroe, LA LA Drug and Poison Info Center (318) 362-5393, (800) 256-9822 Baltimore, MD Maryland Poison Center (410) 528-7701 (800) 492-2414 (MD only) Boston, MA MA Poison Control System (617) 232-2120 (800) 682-9211 (MA only) Detroit, MI Poison Control Center (313) 745-5711 Minneapolis, MN Hennepin Regional Poison Center (612) 347-3141 (612) 337-7474 (TDD) St. Paul, MN MN Regional Poison Center (612) 221-2113 St. Louis, MO Cardinal Glennon Children's Hospital Regional Poison Center (314) 772-5200 (800) 366-8888 Montana Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center (303) 629-1123 Charlotte, NC The Carolinas Poison Center (704) 355-4000 (800) 848-6946, (800) 84-TOXIN Omaha, NE The Poison Center (402) 390-5555 (Omaha) (800) 955-9119 (NE) Newark, NJ NJ Poison Information and Education System (800) 962-1253 Albuquerque, NM NM Poison and Drug Information Center (505) 843-2551 (800) 432-6866 (NM only) North Tarrytown, NY Hudson Valley Regional Poison Control Center (800) 336-6997 (914) 366-3030 Rochester, NY Finger Lakes Regional Poison Control Center (716) 275-5151 (800) 333-0542 Mineola, NY Long Island Regional PCC (516) 542-2323, 3813 New York, NY New York City Poison Control Center (212) POISONS, (212) 340-4494 Syracuse, NY Central NY Poison Control Center (315) 476-4766 (800) 252-5655 Cincinnati, OH Drug and Poison Info Center (513) 558-5111 (800) 872-5111 (OH only) Columbus, OH Central Ohio Poison Center (614) 228-1323 (800) 682-7625 (OH only) Portland, OR Oregon Poison Center (503) 494-8968 (800) 452-7165 (OR only) Hershey, PA Central Pennsylvania Poison Control Center (800) 521-6110 Philadelphia, PA Poison Control Center (215) 386-2100 Pittsburgh, PA Pittsburgh Poison Center (412) 681-6669 Providence, RI Rhode Island Poison Center (401) 444-5727 Nashville, TN Middle TN Poison Center (615) 936-2034, (800) 288-9999 Dallas, TX North Texas Poison Center (214) 590-5000 Houston, TX Southeast Texas Poison Center (409) 765-1420 (Galveston) (713) 654-1701 (Houston) Salt Lake City, UT Utah Poison Control Center (801) 581-2151 (800) 456-7707 (UT only) Charlottesville, VA Blue Ridge Poison Center (804) 924-5543 (800) 451-1428 (West VA only) Seattle, WA Washington Poison Center (206) 526-2121 (800) 732-6985 Charleston, WV West Virginia Poison Center (304) 348-4211 (800) 642-3625 (WV only) Wyoming The Poison Center (800) 955-9119 (NE and WY) (402) 390-5555 National Institute For Occupational Safety And Health (NIOSH) NIOSH conducts research, answers inquiries, and conducts health hazard evaluations for work sites. NIOSH also funds Educational Resource Centers (ERCS) which research on occupational safety and health and provide technical assistance and information to employers. NIOSH Mail Stop C-13 4676 Columbia Parkway Cincinnati, OH 45226 (800) 35-NIOSH, 356-4674 (US) (513) 533-8328 (foreign) (513) 533-8576 (publications fax) Pubstaft@niosdt1.em.cdc.gov (publications e-mail) http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ homepage.html (website) Occupational Safety And Health Administration (OSHA) OSHA enforces the Occupational Safety and Health Act by promulgating health and safety standards, conducting inspections, and fining violators of OSHA standards. U.S. Department of Labor Occup Safety and Health Admin 3rd and Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20210 (202) 219-8148 Region I: (CT, ME, MA, NH, RI & VT) US DOL - OSHA John F. Kennedy Federal Building Room E-340 Boston, MA 02203 (617) 565-9860 Region II: (NJ, NY, PR, & VI) US DOL - OSHA 201 Varick Street, Room 670 New York, NY 10014 (212) 337-2330 Region III: (DE, DC, MD, VA, PA, & WV) US DOL - OSHA Gateway Building, Suite 2100 3535 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19104 (215) 596-1201 Region IV: (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, & TN) US DOL - OSHA Atlanta Federal Center 100 Alabama Street SW Room 6T50 Atlanta, GA 30367 (404) 562-2300 Region V: (IN, IL, MI, MN, OH, & WI) US DOL - OSHA 230 South Dearborn Street, Room 3244 Chicago, IL 60604 (312) 353-2220 Region VI: (AR, LA, NM, OK, & TX) US DOL - OSHA 525 Griffin Street, Room 602 Dallas, TX 75202 (214) 767-4731 Region VII: (IA, KS, MO, & NB) US DOL - OSHA 1100 Main Street, Suite 800 Kansas City, MO 64105 (816) 426-2750 Region VIII: (CO, MT, ND, UT, & WY) US DOL - OSHA 1999 Broadway, Suite 1690 Denver, CO 80202 (303) 844-1600 Region IX: (American Samoa, AZ, CA, Guam, HI, NV, & Pacific Island Trust Territory) US DOL - OSHA 71 Stevenson Street, 4th Floor San Francisco, CA 94105 (415) 744-6670 Region X: (AK, ID, OR, & WA) US DOL - OSHA 1111 3rd Avenue, Suite 715 Seattle, WA 98101 (206) 553-5930 EPA Regional Hotlines The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issues regulations on the environment, and has many publications and services. (202) 260-2090 General EPA services and personnel locator (800) 262-7937 Hazardous Waste Ombudsman website: http:\\www.epa.gov e-mail: http:\\rtk.net Environmental Assistance Division US EPA TSCA Assistance Information Services 401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20024 (202) 554-1404 EPA Regional Offices Region I Boston, MA (617) 565-3420 Region II New York, NY (212) 637-3000 Region III Philadelphia, PA (215) 566-5000 Region IV Atlanta, GA (404) 562-9900 Region V Chicago, IL (312) 353-2000 Region VI Dallas, TX (214) 665-6444 Region VII Kansas City, KS (913) 551-7000 Region VIII Denver, CO (303) 312-6312 Region IX San Francisco, CA (415) 744-1305 Region X Seattle, WA (206) 553-1200 RCRA, CERCLA, Superfund (800) 535-0202 Superfund Office of Emergency and Remedial Response US EPA 401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20460 CERCLA, RCRA Office of Waste Programs Enforcement US EPA 401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20460 (800) 424-9346 Safety Supply Sources There are many excellent full-line distributors for safety equipment. These are usually listed in the Yellow Pages Telephone Directory under safety suppliers. Birmingham, AL Wyatt Safety Supply Co Inc (205) 942-0050 Hayward, CA Safety Supply America (510) 784-0104 Los Angeles, CA Safety Supply America (213) 603-8788 New Haven, CT Connecticut Safety Supply (203) 932-3641 Tampa, FL Safety Equipment Company (813) 621-4921 Atlanta, GA Safety Supply America (404) 355-6323 Indianapolis, IN ORR Safety Equipment Company (317) 248-8331 Kansas City, KS Day Star Corporation (816) 221-1401 Baltimore, MD Maryland First Aid (301) 561-1820 Detroit, MI Argus Supply Company (313) 774-8900 St Louis, MO Wise El Santo Company (314) 428-3100 Hackensack, NJ Olympic Glove Company (800) 526-0122 New York, NY Eastco Industrial Safety Corp (800) 221-0224 Uniondale, NY Global Safety (516) 794-1234 Cincinnati, OH ORR Safety Supply Company (513) 489-0800 Akron, OH Twyman-Templeton Company (216) 929-3388 Portland, OR Sanderson Safety Supply Co (503) 238-5700 Philadelphia, PA Industrial Products Company (215) 547-4400 Philadelphia, PA Arbill Industries (215) 228-4011 Pittsburgh, PA Safety First Supply (412) 787-8600 Grand Praire, TX Dantack Corporation (214) 988-8200 Houston, TX Vallen Safety Supply Company (713) 462-8700 Seattle, WA Rice Safety Supply (206) 767-4500 Janesville, WI Lab Safety Supply Company has a very good technical support line and catalog mail-order service. Lab Safety Supply, Inc. P.O. Box 1368 Janesville, WI 53547 (800) 356-0783 Phone Orders (800) 356-2501 Safety Techline (800) 543-9910 Fax Orders (800) 356-0722 Customer Service Milwaukee, WI Lyons Safety (414) 255-7300 Canada Ackland's Safety Supply has 25 branches throughout Canada. Richmond Hills, Ontario (905) 731-5516 Other Resources American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) 2700 Prosperity Avenue, Ste 250 Fairfax, VA 22031 (703) 849-8888 Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) Office of Information and Public Affairs 4330 East-West Highway Bethesda, MD 20814 (800) 638-2772 (301) 504-0580 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1 Batterymarch Park Quincy, MA 02269 (800) 344-3555 National Safety Council (NSC) 1121 Spring Lake Drive Itasca, IL 60143-3201 (630) 285-1121