SCHOOL SAFETY PROCEDURES FOR ART AND INDUSTRIAL ART PROGRAMS CHAPTER 7. PHYSICAL HAZARDS This chapter discusses the hazards of electromagnetic radiation, noise, ergonomics, safety of working areas, materials handling and storage, machine and tool safety, and electrical hazards. Some of these areas are covered by OSHA regulations. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Electromagnetic radiation includes x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, radio waves, microwaves, etc. Electromagnetic radiation can be characterized by the amount or intensity of the radiation, and by frequency (or wavelength). The higher the frequency, the more energy is contained in the radiation, and the shorter the wavelength. High energy radiation or ionizing radiation includes x-rays and shorter wavelength ultraviolet radiation, and can have serious health effects. Lower energy radiation is called non-ionizing radiation. Its health effects are not as severe, although different types of non-ionizing radiation can cause particular types of problems. In general, art and industrial art teachers and students are not exposed to ionizing radiation. Ultraviolet Radiation Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is emitted by the sun, although only small amounts reach the earth's surface. Ultraviolet radiation is also given off by a number of art processes, especially carbon arcs and arc welding. Xenon lamps and oxyacetylene welding also emit lesser amounts of UV radiation. Short wavelength ultraviolet radiation is ionizing. Short-term or acute exposures to ultraviolet radiation can cause sunburn and conjunctivitis (pink eye). Chronic exposure to ultraviolet radiation may cause cataracts and various types of skin cancer, including the more serious melanoma. The following are precautions for use around ultraviolet radiation: * Use proper eye and skin protection when ultraviolet radiation is present. Wear the darkest shade number of goggles consistent with being able to see the work. For arc welding, face shields should be worn. If UV-protective shields are not available, and other welders are present, then UV goggles should be worn under the face shield to avoid secondary exposure to UV radiation from other welders when the face shield is up. The sum of the shade numbers for the face shield and goggles should be the same as the shade number for the welding shield used alone. See also the section on Face and Eye Protection in Chapter 9. * Walls and other possible reflecting surfaces should be coated with a UV-absorbing paint so as to minimize reflected UV radiation. Fire-resistant, UV-absorbing screens should be used to prevent the UV radiation from exposing other people. * Check the reactivity section of Material Safety Data Sheets of chemicals to determine if they react with UV radiation. If so, protect them from UV radiation. For example, most chlorinated hydrocarbons form poisonous phosgene gas when exposed to UV light, and ferricyanide compounds (used as reducers in photography and in blueprinting) decompose to hydrogen cyanide gas in the presence of UV radiation. * Avoid carbon arcs since they produce intense UV radiation, not necesary for photoprintmaking or blueprinting. Intense UV radiation reacts with oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce ozone and nitrogen dioxide gases, which can cause chemical pneumonia and emphysema from acute exposure and chronic lung problems from long term exposure. Replace carbon arcs with other light sources such as photofloods. Visible Light Visible light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum sandwiched between the ultraviolet region and the infrared region. Excluding lasers, visible light is not as hazardous as other forms of electromagnetic radiation. However, glare and insufficient lighting can cause headaches and eye strain, and can contribute to accidents and increase mistakes. The stroboscopic effect that occurs with fluorescent lighting may induce seizures in some epileptic individuals. * Avoid glare by shielding light sources, decreasing excessive lighting levels, putting blinds or curtains on windows, and mounting lights so that it illuminates the work rather than shining into your eyes. Light-colored matte finishes on walls are recommended to avoid glare. * Avoid shadows by having light come from several directions rather than just one. This is best obtained by a combination of lighting directly on the work area (task lighting) and diffuse background lighting from sources such as fluorescent lighting, multiple lighting sources and reflections off walls, ceilings and even floors. The light-colored matte wall finishes mentioned above can provide this type of diffuse reflection. * Full spectrum fluorescent lighting is preferred over yellow or cool white types. Fluorescent bulbs should never be left bare but should always have diffusers. * Lighting systems need to be cleaned, and burned out fixtures quickly replaced. In particular, flickering fluorescent lights should be immediately fixed. Humming fluorescent lights might need their ballasts changed. Old fluorescent lights (prior to 1978) might have PCB-containing ballasts, which should be replaced and disposed of as hazardous waste. Infrared Radiation Infrared radiation is emitted by heated objects. The hotter the object, the more intense the infrared radiation. Welding, glassblowing, foundry, and kilns (both enameling and pottery) can emit hazardous amounts of infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by water. Intense amounts of infrared radiation can cause skin burns. Chronic exposure to infrared radiation, for example from glassblowing, pottery kilns and enameling kilns, can cause cataracts. * All skin surfaces should be covered when exposed to large amounts of infrared radiation. Where sparks can fly, or molten metal can splash, the protective clothing must not be flammable or susceptible to melting. * Infrared goggles should be worn for glassblowing, looking in kilns, or other situation where metals or other materials are heated to high temperatures. Goggles with a shade number between 1.8 and 3 can be used. Extremely Low Frequency Radiation Any electrical equipment produces extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation in the range of 60 cycles/second. High tension wires and other high voltage equipment produces high intensities of this ELF radiation, but even ordinary electrical equipment like electrical blankets, electric clocks, computers, photocopiers, etc. also produce this radiation, but at lower intensities. In recent years, a number of studies have shown an association between extremely low frequency radiation and leukemia and other types of cancer in humans, including rare breast cancers in men. Other types of health effects found in animal studies include immune system problems, chromosomal changes, etc. ELF radiation should be classified as a probable human carcinogen. There has also been concern about whether video display terminals used with computers cause a higher incidence of birth defects and miscarriages. Human studies have not been conclusive either way. Given the uncertain state of knowledge concerning ELF radiation, minimize exposure to ELF radiation whenever possible. * The intensity of electromagnetic radiation, including ELF, falls off sharply with increasing distance from the source. Therefore, set up electrical equipment as far away from you as possible. * The absorbed dose increases with increasing length of exposure. Therefore, minimize the amount of time spent next to electrical equipment such as photocopiers, laser printers, arc welders, etc. NOISE Excessive exposure to noise over a period of years can cause permanent noise-induced hearing loss. Noise can also cause a wide range of physiological problems, including increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscular contractions and perspiration. Psychological effects can include nervousness, tension, anger and irritability. In art processes, noise can be caused by vibration, forging, woodworking and other machinery, pneumatic tools, exhaust fans, etc. In particular, old or improperly maintained equipment tends to create more noise. In general, if someone has to raise their voice to be heard by another person one to two feet away, then the noise level is too high, especially if it is a steady noise. In that case, sound level measurements should be made in order to determine the extent of the problem. Some studies have shown that woodworking teachers have a higher rate of hearing loss than other teachers. Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB), on a logarithmic scale. In this scale, 90 dB is ten times more intense than 80 dB, and 110 dB is ten times more intense than 100 dB. The sound intensity doubles for every increase of 3 dB, showing that small increases in decibel levels can involve large increases in sound intensity. Table 7-1 shows the decibel levels of common sounds. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 7-1 Approximate Sound Levels of Common Noise Sources Source Sound Level (dB) Jet engine 160 Loud amplified music 118 Planer 115 Portable grinder 110 Circular saw 105 Sander, foundry 95 Classroom teaching voice at 3 feet 75 Normal speaking voice at 3 feet 70 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- OSHA's occupational noise exposure standard (29 CFR 1910.95) established Permissible Noise Exposures. For an 8-hour day, the OSHA standard sets a maximum time-weighted average sound level of 90 dBA. Recently, recognizing that hearing loss can occur at noise levels below 90 dB, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) proposed a Threshold Limit Value of 85 dB as the maximum 8-hour, time-weighted average exposure to noise. If the 8-hour exposure is over 85 dBA, OSHA mandates a Hearing Conservation Program which involves regular hearing examinations, education, and provision of hearing protectors. If the level is over 90 dBA, then measures to reduce sound levels are required. Noise control measures can include quieter machines, isolation, proper maintenance, silencers and mufflers, vibration isolators (shock absorbers) and sound insulation. * Try and eliminate the sound. Mounting fans and machinery on vibration isolators (similar to shock absorbers) can dampen the vibrations causing the noise. Installing a sleeve between the fan and duct can decrease noise. * Good maintenance also decreases noise since worn bearings and other parts generate noise. * New equipment is usually quieter than old equipment. When purchasing machinery, find out how much noise it produces. * Isolating the noise-producing equipment in separate rooms can avoid exposing other people. Sometimes enclosing a particular piece of noisy equipment with sound-proofing materials can help. * Like electromagnetic radiation, noise levels decrease sharply with increasing distance. Therefore, placing noisy equipment at a distance from other people can help decrease noise exposure. * If the above measures do not decrease the noise level sufficiently, then it might be necessary to wear ear plugs or ear muffs. See Chapter 9 for information on hearing protectors. ERGONOMICS Ergonomics is a field of safety which tries to adapt jobs to the human being. This can include teaching proper lifting techniques, design of chairs, design of tools, etc. Improper ergonomics can lead to a variety of illnesses and injuries, including back strain, carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, and circulatory system problems. Lifting Lifting of heavy equipment, lithographic and sculpture stones, etc. often occurs in art and is a common cause of back injuries. * Whenever possible, use mechanical devices such as adjustable height carts to move heavy objects. * Never lift weights that are too heavy. * The lifting method most generally recommended is flexing the knees, keeping the back straight, and keeping the weight close to the body. Lift so that the spine is not twisted. Repetitive Trauma Disorders A variety of "overuse" disorders can be caused by repetitive motions, such as using a paintbrush or chisel, typing at computer keyboards, or weaving for hours on end. This can cause problems such as tendinitis in the hands, arms, wrists and fingers, an inflammation of the muscles or tendons, with symptoms of pain, warmth, swelling and difficulty in moving the afflicted part. This can also be exacerbated by tightly gripping tools such as pencils, brushes, chisels, etc. Prolonged bending of the wrists to angles near 90 degrees can lead to carpel tunnel syndrome. Working on a potter's wheel, painting or drawing in awkward positions, and using a chisel are some situations which have caused carpel tunnel syndrome in artists. This is a nerve entrapment disease where the bent wrist puts pressure on the median nerve which runs through a narrow space in the wrist surrounded by wrist bones and ligaments (the carpel tunnel). Symptoms include pain, numbness and/or pins and needles in the thumb and first three fingers. This can have serious long term effects, and often requires surgical intervention. Pneumatic and vibrating equipment such as chain saws can also create problems due to vibration. Raynaud's phenomenon, which is also called "white fingers" or "dead fingers", affects the circulation of the fingers, causing them to turn white from lack of blood and to lose sensation. Vibration can cause this, particularly with simultaneous exposure to cold, for example, from the air blast of pneumatic tools. This condition is initially temporary, but can spread to the whole hand and cause permanent damage. * Take rest breaks to stretch muscles every 45 minutes or so. Where possible, try a variety of tasks to relieve the strain on particular muscles. * Use tools that are comfortable. Built-up handles on tools are better than thin handles which require tighter grips. Cushioned handles also help. Tools with right-angled handles don't require bending the wrist. Tools designed for left-handed people are also increasingly becoming available. * When working with pneumatic tools, keep hands warm, and make take work breaks in a warm place. Try and direct the air blast from the tools away from the hands. WORKING AREAS Walking and Working Surfaces * Source: 29 CFR 1910.22 * All work areas, including passageways, storerooms, and service-rooms should be kept neat, clean, sanitary, and dry. Spills must be cleaned up safely and promptly. * The floors should be free of scraps, garbage, debris, oil or coolant spills, chips, and other waste. Likewise, floors, passageways, and working areas should be kept free of loose boards, nails, splinters and other protrusions. Machinery and excess equipment or storage shouldn't hazardously crowd the floor space. * There should be nonslip surfaces or mats on the walking and work areas in wet spaces. * Permanent aisles must be recognizable, and clear of obstruction. Ladders and Scaffolding * Source: 29 CFR 1910.24, 1910.25, 1910.26, 1910.27, 1910.28, 1910.29, 1910. * A fixed ladder should be able to hold a 200 pound load. There are OSHA specifications for the size and type of rungs that are acceptable for ladders. Ladders should be free of splinters. Wood ladders should be made with preserved wood where needed, since paint alone doesn't adequately preserve wood. * The preferred angle for descent is 75 - 90 degrees. Vertical ladders require cages or safety devices if they are longer than 20 feet. * All portable ladders should be maintained in good condition, and inspected frequently. Dangerous ladders should be repaired or discarded. Metal ladders should not be used near energized electrical equipment. Ladders should be placed on secure nonslip surfaces or footing. All ladders should meet OSHA standards, and purchase orders should include this requirement. * A standard guardrail is required at every open-sided platform, catwalk, or runway that is 4 or more feet above the floor. Stairways and floor openings require standard guardrails on all sides except at the stair entrance. There are precise requirements for the construction of the standard guardrail. * Scaffolds should be able to support at least four times the maximum intended load, while wire or rope should be able to support at least six times the intended load. The scaffold should solid enough to hold the intended load without settling or shifting. Unstable objects such as bricks, blocks, or boxes should not be used to support scaffolds or planks. * Guardrails and toeboards must be used on all sides of scaffolds that are more than 10 feet above the ground. If the scaffold is less than 45 inches wide, then guardrails are required for scaffolds from 4 to 10 feet high. Planks must be secure from movement or be overlapped a minimum of 12 inches. * All scaffolds must be maintained and inspected. Dangerous scaffolds should be removed. * The height of rolling scaffolds should not exceed four times the size of the base. There must be proper cross and horizontal bracing. At least two out of four casters or wheels must be swivel type on rolling scaffolds, and they should all have locking capability. People should not be allowed to ride on manually propelled scaffolds. Exits * Source: 29 CFR 1910.36, 1910.37 * There must be an exit route that leads to a public way. The area surrounding the exit and exit route should be clear of any obstruction or debris. This exit route should not pass through high hazard areas unless there is suitable shielding or barriers. * Doors leading to exit routes should be side-hinged and swinging. If the room to be exited holds more than 50 people, or is an area of high hazard potential, then the door must swing in the outward (from the room) direction. No locks or fasteners should prevent escape from the inside of the building. * If the exits aren't accessible at all times, then there must be two available exit paths that lead directly to the exit. * "EXIT", written in clear, plain, legible letters must mark each egress. This signs should not be obscured by any decoration, furnishings or other signs. Doors, passageways or stairways only resembling exits must be marked "NOT AN EXIT", or if applicable "STORAGE ROOM" or "TO BASEMENT" thus clarifying their usage. * Directional arrows must delineate egress pathways when actual exit signs are not visible. It there is any occupancy at night, or there is reduced lighting during the day, exit signs must be lit with a reliable light source. Note that many local fire departments might have stricter regulations than those cited here. MATERIALS HANDLING AND STORAGE Manual Handling According to the National Safety Council, nearly one in four disabling injuries is directly related to materials handling activities. Accidents include slips, and falls, back injuries and hernias, chemical and heat injury, as well as hand and foot injury. The following are recommendations for manual handling of materials: * People lifting heavy objects should be trained in safe lifting techniques. * If the object is large, have someone else guide the move. For two person lifting, make sure the individuals are as similar in height and strength as possible to ensure an equal balance of weight. * Use protective equipment if necessary. For example use heat resistant gloves for hot objects, and heavy work gloves for rough lumber to protect from splinters. Powered Equipment * Hazards of different types of fork trucks often depend on the type of fuel used. Only those trained and authorized in the safe operation of fork trucks should be allowed to operate them. Unattended trucks should be parked in neutral, with forks lowered completely. * Trucks should be inspected before service each day. * Trucks must have an overhead to protect against falling objects. * The view from the cabin should always be free. Loads that obstruct clear view must be hauled from behind. * All loading boards and accessories must be securable. * "No Smoking" signs are required with the use of battery powered operations. * See 23 CFR 1910.178 for more detailed regulations. Safe Storage * Safe storage is characterized by the maintenance of a neat and orderly area for both temporary and permanent storage. Stored materials must not block any safety equipment (i.e. fire extinguishers, alarm boxes, sprinkler system controls, electric switches, lights or first aid supplies). Clearance must be maintained for exit routes, aisles, loading pathways, and doorways. * Proper drainage must be provided if necessary. * Storage of hazardous chemicals and of flammable and combustible materials must be in accordance with OSHA regulations. * OSHA specifies floorload capacity, labeling of floorboard capacity, door size, aisle width, stack clearance, loading facility and dock dimensions (29 CFR 1910.22). * Floors and stairways should be kept free of debris, spill or fire hazards. * All drums should remain sealed. Leaking drums should be removed. * Store objects securely. For example, cylinders that are stored horizontally should be nested and blocked. * Lack of adequate storage space often leads to unsafe conditions. Each classroom, workshop, studio, or lab should have adequate space for storage of materials used. * Tool cribs, tool panels, wall cabinets, bench drawers, and tool racks should be constructed in such a way that there is protection from injury from tools falling from overhead and cuts arising from improperly stored sharp tools. MACHINE AND TOOL SAFETY Accidents involving machines, particularly woodworking machines, cause a high percentage of injuries in art departments. The following are some basic safety rules for machine and tool safety: * Everyone using tools and machines should be properly trained in their use according to manufacturing specifications, and general safe and cautious behavior in the woodshop. * Everyone should wear safety goggles or safety glasses. A face shield may be worn over these but a face shield by itself does not adequately protect the eyes. Eye glasses are not sufficient protection. * NIOSH-approved toxic dust masks should be available and used when necessary. * Loose clothing, work gloves, neckties and dangling jewelry should not be worn around powered tools or machines. * The work area should always be kept clean, swept, and well-lit. Floors should be free of all debris, slippery materials, or water. * Never leave any machine that is running unattended. Turn off the power, and wait until the machine isn't moving before leaving the work area. * When energized machines and equipment are being serviced or maintained, OSHA requires a program to ensure the machines are equipped with lockout devices or tagout devices if guards are removed or bypassed, or other safety hazards could exist during the servicing (29 CFR 1910.147). Machine Guards Hazards to those working with machinery exist whenever machine parts rotate, reciprocate, move in transverse, cut, punch, nip, shear or bend. Machinery action can occur at the site of the work-piece and elsewhere. OSHA requires machine guards on all machines with these safety hazards to protect the operator and other employees (29 CFR 1910.211, 1910.213, 1910.215 - .219) Common methods of guarding against machine hazards include: * enclosing the operation; * interlocking devices; * moving barriers; * removal devices; * remote control; * two-hand tripping devices; and * electronic safety devices. Fixed enclosures: Fixed enclosure is the preferred method of machine guarding. Access to dangerous parts is impossible. Flying machine parts would be restrained. Sometimes they are adjustable to different types of machine parts. In this case, they should also be fixable. Interlocking guards: Interlocking guards provide the second best method of machine guarding. An interlocking enclosure is removable. A mechanical or electric interlocking connection prevents dangerous contact between machine and operator. Specifically, an interlocking enclosure guard should: * disengage power preventing start-up of machine when the guard is open. * guard the danger point before the start of operation. * maintain the closed guard until the machine is at rest, and likewise stop power during a work cycle if the guard is opened. Examples of interlocking guards include barrier bars or wires, or electric eye-beams, or magnetic circuitry that activates a braking mechanism. Automatic guards: Automatic guards are the third best choice. One type of automatic guard operates while the machine is active, and protects by removing the operator's hand or body from the danger zone. Common examples are sweep and pushaway devices. Remote control placement, feeding and ejecting can protect the operator from contact at the dangerous point in machine operation. Two-handed devices can activate the machine. Hand controls can also be linked with foot controls. The start-up controls should be positioned so that the operator cannot reach the dangerous point of the machine, unless he or she de-activates the machine by releasing the switch. Woodworking Machines Woodworking machines requires special consideration because of they are a major cause of accidents in arts programs. This is covered by OSHA under 29 CFR 1910.213. * Machines should be secured. Belts, pulleys, chains, sprockets and gears must be guarded. V-belts and chain drives must be completely enclosed; if belts, shafting, couplings, keys, collars and clutches are located seven or less feet above the ground, these must be guarded from contact. * Machine guards should be securely attached to machines, and conform to existing standards, or be specifically designed for the particular machine. (See discussion on machine guards below.) * Every machine needs an accessible stop switch. * Machines should have a master switch. It should be possible to lock the machine in the "off" position. * Cutting blades must be maintained and kept sharp. * Scraps and waste should be kept clear of the working surface of the machine. * All woodworking machines that generate considerable quantities of wood dust should be equipped with dust collectors that exhaust to the outside. Portable dust collectors are available that can be connected to several machines at once. * Hearing protection may be necessary since noise levels from machinery can be very high. A good rule of thumb is that hearing protection is called for when there is difficulty hearing someone one to two feet away. Powered Hand Tools * Source: 29 CFR 1910.241 - .243. * All electric cords must be in good condition, and inspected and maintained. Special precautions must be taken if the work is damp, or contains flammables or combustibles. * All guards, shields, and attachments should be in place and functioning. * Hand held electrical power tools must have a quick-release (dead-man) control that shuts off power when control switch is released. * The frame of electrical tools must be grounded or double-insulated, and thus labeled. * Pneumatic tools must be securely fastened to the hose. Additionally, there must be a tool retainer that restrains the attachment. Hand Tools * All hand tools must be maintained in good condition, and replaced if damaged. * Tools should be stored safely and neatly. There should be procedures for the control of tools. * Tools should only be used for their intended purpose. For further information on the hazards and precautions for woodworking machines, powered hand tools and hand tools, see the data sheets prepared by the Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). These are available from the Center for Safety in the Arts. ELECTRICAL SAFETY OSHA uses the National Electrical Code (NFPA 70-1971, and ANSI C1-1971) for its standard on electrical safety (29 CFR 1910.301 - 1910.308). Electrical fires are the number one cause of fire. Basic requirements for electrical safety include: * In every situation, permanent wires should be used. Extension cords, cube taps, and multiple jacks shouldn't be used. If needed, more outlets should be installed. * Flexible cords should be inspected, maintained, and replaced if there are any signs of damage, fraying or deterioration. Cords should never be used as a substitute for fixed wiring. There should not be pull on joints or terminal screws of cords. * It is forbidden to run flexible cords through holes in windows, doors, ceilings, floors, or walls. Cords may not be attached to building surfaces. * Splices and repairs on flexible cord must be done by welding, brazing or soldering, or splicing devices. Do not tape wires. Both splices and free ends of conductors must be insulated. * Circuit breakers and fuse boxes must either be recognizable or labeled. Outlets, switches, and junction boxes must be covered. All electrical boxes should be secured to the wall. * The circuit breaker panel or fuse box should be easily accessible. Each switch should be labeled as to its function. Ground fault interrupters, which shut off the electrical current in the case of shorts should be installed. * Electrical motor frames must be grounded. If there is any chance of operation in a wet or damp location, electrical contact with metal, voltage reached greater than 150, or operation in a hazardous location, then all exposed metal parts must be grounded, even if noncurrent-carrying. Likewise, noncurrent metal parts of appliances and hand-held motor operated tools must be grounded and labeled. Use only grounded plugs in wet areas. * Ground fault circuit interrupters, which shut off the electrical current in case of shorts, should be installed whenever machinery or electrical outlets are within 10 feet of the chance of contact with water. * 220-volt and 110-volt wiring should be separate and identifiable. Don't use compatible plugs. * Don't let sawdust or other debris build up around motors, since the debris may ignite if the motor overheats. * National Electrical Code requirements for electrical wiring and equipment near flammable and combustible liquids was discussed in Chapter 8. REFERENCES 1. American National Standards Institute. (1989). Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection. ANSI Z87.1-1989. ANSI, New York. 2. Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety. Infograms: Hand Tools (16 pp) Powered Hand Tools (17 pp) Woodworking (10 pp) (These are a series of one-page data sheets on various topics that are useful training tools.) 3. Division of Training and Manpower Development. (1981). Safety and Health for Industrial/Vocational Education for Supervisors and Instructors. DHHS (NIOSH) and DOL (OSHA), Cincinnati, OH. 4. National Fire Protection Association. (1987). NFPA 70-1987. National Electrical Code. NFPA, Quincy, MA. 5. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (1979). Occupational Safety and Health in Vocational Education, DHHS (NIOSH), Cincinnati, OH. 6. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1989). Occupational Safety and Health Standards For General Industry, 29 CFR Part 1910. OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC. 7. Pinsky, M. (1987). The VDT Book- A Computer User's Guide to Health and Safety. New York Committee for Occupational Safety and Health, New York, NY. 8. Plakke, B. L. (1985). Hearing Conservation in Secondary Industrial Arts Classes: A Challenge for School Audiologists. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools. 16(1): 75. 9. Stellman, J., and Henifin, M.S. (1983). Office Work Can Be Dangerous to Your Health, Pantheon Books, New York, NY. 10. Woodford, C.M. and O'Farrel, M.L. (1983). High Frequency of Loss of Hearing in Secondary School Students: An Investigation of Possible Etiologic Factors. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools. 14:22.